当代语言学导论 课文重点 重点词汇 考试内容 课后习题答案.docx

当代语言学导论 课文重点 重点词汇 考试内容 课后习题答案.docx

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当代语言学导论课文重点重点词汇考试内容课后习题答案

1.Humansuperiorityliesinhisuniqueendowment天赋—theabilitytotalk,orrather,tocommunicatebymeansoflanguage.

2.Languageisavehicleofpower,forcontrol,forcreation.Andforchange.

3.Thestudyofhumanlanguageiscalledlinguistics.

4.Languageisthesystemofhumancommunicationwhichconsistsofthestructuredarrangementofsounds（ortheirwrittenrepresentation）intolargerunits,e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterances.

5.Varietiesoflanguage:

Anyparticularlanguageisinessenceasetofvarieties.Therearelocalvarieties区域变体–dialectsandaccents（theformerdifferfromeachotherinpronunciation,vocabulary,andevengrammar;thelatteronlyinpronunciation）,socialvarieties—sociolects社会方言（=socialdialects,usedbypeopleofdifferentclasses,ages,orsexes）,historicalvarieties—registers语域（e.g.formalEnglish,scientificEnglish）,andevenindividualvarieties—idiolects个人语言.Usuallyalanguagehasanofficiallydeclaredorgenerallyconsideredstandarddialect（e.g.PutonghuainChina,GeneralAmericanintheUS）

6.Prescriptivismistheviewthatonevarietyoflanguagehasaninherentlyhighervaluethanothers.

7.Descriptivismisthepolicyofdescribinglanguagesastheyareboundtoexist.Usagesofdifferentvarietiesshouldbeobservedandrecordedinsteadofbeingjudgedwithsomeimposednorms.

8.Plato’sproblem:

Howcaneveryhumanbeingdeveloparichsystemoflinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoflimitedandfragmentaryempiricalevidence?

9.Platoheldthattherewasauniversallycorrectandacceptablelogicoflanguageformantofollowinexpressinghisideas.

10.Aristotlearguedthatknowledgeoflanguagewasarrivedatbyconventionandagreementofthespeakersofagivenlanguage.

11.InancientChina,XunZireasonedthatanamewasacceptedthroughpublicagreement,andtheappropriatenessofnamingathinglayinconvention.

12.AccordingtoChomsky,knowledgeoflanguageistheresultofinteractionofUGandlaterexperience.

13.（Ferdinandde）Saussureadvocatedthediversionofthefocusoflinguisticstudyfromdiachronictosynchronic.

14.Chomsky’sepistemologyoftheknowledgeoflanguagefoesasfollows:

1）Everyhumanbeinghasthelanguagecompetence能力,becausehehastheinbornUGwhichotherspecieslack.

2）UGistheinitialstateofthehumanlanguagefaculty语言器官/机制whichalonecannotenableahumanbabytospeak.Ababyneedstobeexposedtothelinguisticenvironmentofacertainlanguageandaccumulateexperience.

3）Duetotheeffectoflaterexperience,thebaby’sminddevelopsfromtheinitialstateintothesteadystate,whichcorrespondstothecompetenceofspeakingaspecifichumanlanguage.

15.Behaviorists’orempiricists’opinionsareidentical统一的，同一的withAristotle’s.

16.Connectionism/emergentismarguesthatthementalneuralmechanismsresponsibleforbothlexicalandgrammaticalprocessingarenotuniquetolanguage.

17.diachronic:

focusonthecomparisonbetweenlanguagesandtheexplorationofthehistoricalchangeandvariationofsomeancientlanguages./of,relatingto,ordealingwithphenomena（asoflanguageorculture）astheyoccurorchangeoveraperiodoftime

18.synchronic:

researchofthefactsoflanguageagreeduponorsharedbyhemembersoflanguagecommunityatagivenpointintime./concernedwitheventsexistinginalimitedtimeperiodandignoringhistoricalantecedents

19.Galileanthesis”natureisperfect”

20.Fossilizationisaprocessinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksasecondlanguage.

21.Threeadequacies:

observationaladequacy

descriptiveadequacy

explanatoryadequacy（provideadescriptivelyadequategrammarforeverynaturallanguage,anddoessointermsofmaximallyconstrainedsetofuniversalprincipleswhichrepresentpsychologicallyplausiblenaturalprinciplesofmentalcomputation.）

22.Atheoryinsciencemustnotbepurespeculationbuttestableatobservational,descriptive,andexplanatorylevels.

23.Sciencetellsusthatnatureisaphysicalcontinuum连续体,whichdoesnotbreakitselfintophysics,chemistry,psychology,linguistics…;thesedisciplines学科arenotfactsbutourdecisions.

24.Platoassertedthattherewasa”legislator”whogavethecorrect,naturalnametoeverything,andlanguagesbelongedtostatesbutnottoindividuals.

25.J.G.Herderpointedoutthatbabies’cryisasortofnaturalsounds,whichcouldneverdevelopintoalanguage.

26.AcornerstoneofscienceisGalilean’sintuitionthatnatureisperfect.

27.SirWilliamJohnsfirstproposedthatalanguageinSouthAsiabearelativeofmanyEuropeanlanguages.

28.TheoriginoflanguageasatopicwasbannedbytheLinguisticSocietyofParisfoundedin1866.

29.Inaccordancewiththethreephasesjustmentioned,phoneticsisdividedintothreesub-fields.Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学studiesspeechproductionbythespeechorgans;acousticphonetics声学语音学studiesphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;andauditoryphonetics听觉语音学studiestheperceptionofspeechsoundsinthehumanauditoryandcognitivesystem.

30.A“sound”peoplesaytheyproduceisactuallyacombinationofsoundscalledasyllable,whichisoftenrelatedtoachestpulse.

31.Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointinthevocaltractatwhichthemainclosureornarrowingismadesoastomodifytheflowofairfromthechesttothemouthinproducingasound.

32.Themannerofarticulationreferstothetypeofconstriction收缩ormovementthatoccursatanyplaceofarticulation.

33.Theproductionofdifferentspeechsoundsthroughtheuseoftheseorgansisknownas

articulation.

34.Vibration颤动

35.Adam’sapplearea喉结

36.Consonantsaresoundsmadebyaclosureinthevocaltract,orbyanarrowingfromwhichaircannotescapewithoutproducingaudiblefriction摩擦,andvowelsaresoundsinwhichthereisnoobstructiontotheflowofairasitpassesfromthelarynxtothelips.

37.Bilabial双唇音,formedbybringingthelipstogether,e.g.[p],[m].Herethefunctionoflipsissomewhatcomplicated:

theybothcanberegardedastheactiveandpassive

articulatorssimultaneously.

38.Labio-dental唇齿音,formedbythelowerlipagainsttheupperteeth,e.g.[f].

39.Dental齿音,formedbyplacingthetipofthetongueagainsttheupperteeth,e.g.[ð].

40.Alveolar齿龈音,formedbyplacingthetiporbladeofthetongueagainstthealveolarridge,e.g.[t].

41.Palatal腭音,formedbythefrontofthetongueagainstthehardpalate,namely,theroofofthemouth,e.g.[j].

42.Palato-alveolar腭龈音,formedmidwaybetweentheplacesofarticulationforpalatalsandalveolars:

theblade（andsometimesthetip）ofthetonguearticulateswiththealveolarridge,withasimultaneousraisingofthefrontofthetonguetowardsthehardpalate,e.g.[ʃ].

43.Velar软腭音,formedbythebackofthetongueagainstthesoftpalate,e.g.[k].

44.Glottal声门音,formedbythevocalcordscomingtogethertocauseaclosureorfriction,e.g.[h].

45.Retrofle卷舌音,formedwhentheapexofthetongueiscurledbackinthedirectionofthehardpalate,asheardinmanyIndianEnglishaccents.

46.Uvular小舌音,formedbythebackofthetongueagainsttheuvula,asheardinsomeaccentsofFrench.

47.Pharyngeal咽音,formedinthepharynx,thepartofthethroatabovethelarynx.Specifically,thefrontwallofthepharynxarticulateswiththebackwall,asheardinArabic.

48.Organsinthevocaltract,suchasthelips,teeth,orhardpalate,arecalledarticulators.

49.Consonantsarealsoclassifiedaccordingtothemannerofarticulation,concerningwhichphoneticianstendtoconsiderseveralfactors.

50.Thefirstfactoristhedegreeoftheconstrictionofairflow.AtleastsixmainclassescanbedistinguishedinEnglish:

51.Plosive爆破音,formedbycompletelyclosingtheairpassageandsuddenlyremovingtheobstacle,sothattheairescapesmakinganexplosivesound,e.g.[p],[d].Itbelongstoabroadercategorycalled“stop”whichincludesclosuresproducedbyairstreamsnotfromthelungs,asencounteredinsomesouthernAfricanlanguages.

52.Nasal鼻音,formedwiththesoftpalatelowered,thusallowingairtoresonateinthenose,e.g.[m].

53.Affricate塞擦音,aconsonantwhichstartsasaplosive,butinsteadofendingwithplosion,endswithafricativemadeinthesameplace,e.g.[tʃ].

54.Liquid流音,formedbysomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouth,whichseemsnotenoughtocauseanyrealconstrictionorfriction,e.g.[l],[r].[l]iscalledalateralliquid,becauseinmakingit,anobstacleisplacedinthemiddleofthemouth,leavingtheairfreetoescapeatoneorbothsides.

55.Fricative擦音,formedbyanarrowingoftheairpassageatsomepointsothattheairinescapingmakesaudiblefrication.e.g.[f],[z].Somefricativesarealsocalledsibilants齿擦音,whicharemadewithagroove-likestructureinthefrontpartofthetongue,producingakindofhissingsound,e.g.[s],[ʃ].

56.Glide滑音,sometimescalledsemi-vowelbecauseitistypicallyproducedwiththetonguemoving,or“gliding”,toorfromthepositionofanearbyvowel,e.g.[h],[w].

57.Thesecondfactorisvoicing.Voiceiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.

58.Thethirdfactorisaspiration.Thisisthesoundofairrushingthroughthevocaltract,usuallyfoundafterthereleaseofplosiveconsonantsinsomesituation.

59.Differentvowelsresultfromchangingtheshapeofthemouth;allofthemarevoicedcontinuoussounds.

60.[i:

]closevowels,[a:

]openvowels,[e]semi-closedvowels,[ɔ:

]semi-openvowels

61.Fourroundedvowels:

[u:

][u][ɔ:

]