on UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.docx
- 文档编号:11987069
- 上传时间:2023-04-16
- 格式:DOCX
- 页数:16
- 大小:26.77KB
on UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.docx
《on UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《on UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.docx(16页珍藏版)》请在冰豆网上搜索。
onUNIVERSITIESANDCOLLEGES
UNIVERSITIESANDCOLLEGES
Highereducationistheschoolingthatbeginsataboutage18afterthecompletionofsecondaryschool.Inthepasthighereducationwasmuchmorenarrowlydefinedthanitistoday.Itoriginallymeanttheschoolingthatwasprovidedtomenenteringtheprofessions,andthesewerelimitedtolaw,medicine,andreligion.Todaythetermprofessionhasgainedamuchbroaderdefinitionthanacallingandhasbecomealmostsynonymouswithcareeroroccupation.
Beginninginaboutthe11thcentury,theinstitutionsthatprovidedschoolingfortheprofessionswerecollegesanduniversities.Now,inadditiontothese,therearetradeschools,technicalinstitutes,militaryacademies,andotherorganizationsinwhichindividualsmayprepareforacareer.Nevertheless,collegesanduniversitieshaveremainedthedominantinstitutionsthroughouttheworldforthepursuitofhighereducation.
Intheseinstitutionsdifferentlevelsofschoolingareprovided.Studentscomingfromsecondaryschools--calledhighschoolsorpreparatoryschoolsintheUnitedStates--normallytakeafour-yearcourseleadingtoadiplomacalledabachelor'sdegree.Theschoolingthatleadstothebachelor'sdegreeiscalledundergraduatework.
Studentsmaythenproceedtomoreadvancedschooling.Thismayconsistofstudyataprofessionalschoolsuchasacollegeoflaworengineering,oritmayinvolvegraduateschoolatauniversity--thepursuitofamaster'sordoctor'sdegreeinachosenfieldofstudy.Afterearninganadvanceddegree,itispossibletocontinueatauniversityinaresearchcapacitytoearnfurthercredentialsinone'sfieldofstudy.AdvanceddegreesaregenerallyrequiredbeforeanyonecanteachatacollegeoruniversityintheUnitedStates.
OriginoftheCollege
Thetermscollegeanduniversityoriginallyhadverysimilarmeanings.Onlywiththepassingofcenturiesdiduniversitycometosignifyaneducationalinstitutioncomposedofmorethanonecollege.Thewordcollegemeansliterally"unionformedbylaw,"oragroupofpeopleassociatedinsomecommonfunction.TheancientRomancraftguildswerecalledcollegia.Theclosestparalleltodayisthecorporation,abusinessorganizationcharteredbyagovernment.
DuringtheMiddleAgesstudentsattheuniversitiesofParis,Oxford,andCambridgefounditconvenienttorenthousesandshareexpensesinsteadoflivinginprivateapartments.Bythe13thcenturythese"housesofscholars"werebecominglegallyrecognizedcorporateinstitutions.AtOxfordtheearliestofthesecorporationswereUniversityCollege,foundedin1249byWilliamofDurham;BalliolCollege,foundedbyJohnBalliolin1263;andMertonCollege,foundedabout1264byWalterdeMerton.AsimilardevelopmenttookplaceatCambridge.
AtParistheuniversitywasdividedintofacultiesofcanonlaw,theology,medicine,andthearts.Theartsfaculty,whichwastheundergraduatecollegeofitsday,wasfurtherdividedintofournations,whichincludedbothteachersandstudents.Nationsatmedievaluniversitiesweregroupsprimarilyofstudentsfromaspecificregionorcountrywhobandedtogetherformutualprotectioninaforeignland.OntheContinentthesenationsweretheforerunnersofcolleges.Insomeuniversitiesthenationswereresponsibleforteachingandexaminingstudents.ThedivisionofstudentsintonationsfirstoccurredattheuniversityinBologna,Italy.
IntheUnitedStatesthewordcollegemostcommonlyreferstofour-yearinstitutionsthatadmitstudentsfromsecondaryschoolsandgrantabachelor'sdegreeafterageneralcourseofstudies.Usuallycalledliberalartscolleges,theyareoftencompletelyindependentofanyuniversityconnection.
Acollegemayalsobeaschoolforspecializedtrainingthattakesplaceafterreceivingthebachelor'sdegree--suchasacollegeoflawormedicine.Schoolsspecializingintheologicaltrainingmaybecalledseminariesorschoolsinsteadofcolleges.Auniversitynormallyconsistsofagroupofcolleges--onefortheliberalartsorgeneralstudiesandothersforengineering,law,medicine,education,andbusiness.Someofthesecollegesareforadvancedstudy,whilethecollegeofliberalartsistheinstitutioninwhichoneearnsabachelor'sdegree.
Therearemanyschoolsofferingtraininginsecretarialskills,business,accounting,computerprogramming,andothercoursesforhigh-schoolgraduates.Manyofthesearecalledcolleges,thoughtheydonotconferdegrees.TheUnitedStateshasmanytwo-yearinstitutionscalledjuniorcollegesorcommunitycolleges.Courseworkinjuniorcollegesisequivalenttothefirsttwoyearsofafour-yearliberalartscollege.Inafewuniversitiesthestudentresidencehallsarecalledcolleges.
OriginoftheUniversity
DuringtheMiddleAgestheLatinworduniversitasreferredtoanytypeofcommunity.Whenusedinitsmodernsenseasaplaceforadvancedlearning,itusuallyrequiredtheadditionofotherwordssuchas"mastersandscholars."Thetermthatwasnormallyusedtodescribealegallycharteredschoolofteachersandstudentswasstudiumgenerale,meaningaplaceofstudyopentostudentsfromallparts.Theuniversitaswasagroupofteachersorstudents(orperhapsboth)withinthestudium.Astudiumwasquitesimilartoaguildinbothoriginandcomposition.Thebeginnerswereessentiallyapprentices,calledbachelors,whiletheteacherswerethemasters.
Thestudiumprobablyemergedwhenthebishopofadiocesegaveateacherpermissiontooperateaschoolotherthanthelocalcathedralormonasteryschool.Itislikelythatalicensetoteachwasgrantedtoamasterafteraformalexamination.Thestudiumitselfbecameaschoolthatgrantedateachinglicensetoitsscholarsaftertheycompletedaprescribedcourseofstudyandpassedexaminations.
Bythe11thor12thcenturynostudiumgeneralecouldbestartedwithoutalicensefromeitherachurchorgovernmentalofficial.Teachersandstudents,whoweremostlyeitherclergyorfutureclergy,enjoyedcertainprivileges.In1158theemperorFrederickIBarbarossagrantedthoseinhisjurisdictionprotectionfromunjustarrest,therightoftrialbeforetheirpeers,andpermissiontodwellinsecurity.Suchprivilegesweregraduallyenlargedtoincludeprotectionfromextortioninfinancialdealingsandtherighttostopattendinglecturesasaprotestagainstgrievancesoroutsideinterferencewithestablishedrights.
Graduallycertainschools--especiallyBolognaandParis--gainedinternationalrecognition,andstudentsflockedtothem.Theirreputationsallowedgraduatesofthoseschoolstoteachanywhereelse.Topromotethequalityofcertainschools,thepopesandemperorsgrantedspeciallicensesorcharters.In1233,forexample,PopeGregoryIXissuedadocumenttotheschoolatToulouseallowinganyonewhohadbeenadmittedtoadoctorateattheschooltoteachanywherewithoutfurtherexamination.Bytheendofthe14thcenturythetermuniversitashaddisplacedstudiumandwasusedbyitselftodescribethebetter-knownschoolsofEurope.
DegreesandDiplomas
Astudentgraduatingfromafour-yearcollegeintheUnitedStatestodaynormallyreceivesaB.A.orB.S.degree,meaningBachelorofArtsandBachelorofScience.Shouldthestudentwishfurthereducation,agraduateschoolatauniversitymaybeselected.(Collegesofthetypeofferingbachelors'degreesdonotnormallyoffergraduatecourses.)Thisisalevelofstudyforthosewhohavegraduatedfromcollege,asthenamesuggests.Furtherstudyofoneortwoyearscanearnamaster'sdegree,andbeyondthatastudentmayearnadoctorate,normallyaPh.D.,orDoctorofPhilosophy.Thisdegree,contrarytoitsname,maybeearnedinavarietyofsubjects,notjustthefieldofphilosophy.
Besidesgraduateschoolthereareotheroptionsforfurtherstudy.Amongthemaremedicalschool,lawschool,andtheologicalseminaryinkeepingwiththetraditionalprofessionsastheywereknownintheMiddleAges.Therearetodayseveralotherchoicesaswell,includingbusinessschool,architecturalschool,engineeringschool,schoolofveterinarymedicine,schooloffinearts,schoolofjournalism,andmanyotherformsofspecializedtrainingleadingtospecificcareers.Largeuniversitieshavecollegesinallofthesefields.Thedegreesgivenbytheseschoolsvarywiththeprofessionandoccasionallywiththeschool.Agraduateofamedicalschool,forinstance,earnsaDoctorofMedicinedegree,orM.D.,whilethreeyearsataseminarybringsamasteroftheology.
Themoderndegreestructureismorecomplexthanthatoriginatinginaboutthe13thcentury.Thentherewereonlythreelevelsofattainment.Thebachelor'sdegreerepresentedthefirststageofacademiclifeinauniversity.Ithaditscounterpartintheapprenticeshipsforyoungmembersofaguild.Thedegreeallowedthescholartostudytoearnalicentiate,comparabletoacraftjourneyman.Thisdegree,asitsnamesuggests,wasalicensepermittinghimtoteachandtostudyfurthertoearnadoctorateoramaster'sdegree,whichwerethesameatthattime.Thedoctorateadmittedthescholarintofullmembershipintheteachers'guildandcertifiedhimasafull-timelecturerattheuniversity.Itwascomparabletobecomingamasterinacraftguild.(SeealsoGuild.)
InGreatBritainthebachelor'sisgivenasthefirstdegreeinartsorsciencesafterathree-yearcourseinmostcases.TheMasterofArtsdegree,orM.A.,isearnedbyexamination,exceptatCambridgeandOxford.Thoseuniversitiesgrantitonlyafteraperiodofresidencedatingfromastudent'scommencementofstudiesattheschools.AtCambridgeitisawardedwithoutexaminationsixyearsaftertheendofastudent'sfirsttermofresi
- 配套讲稿:
如PPT文件的首页显示word图标,表示该PPT已包含配套word讲稿。双击word图标可打开word文档。
- 特殊限制:
部分文档作品中含有的国旗、国徽等图片,仅作为作品整体效果示例展示,禁止商用。设计者仅对作品中独创性部分享有著作权。
- 关 键 词:
- on UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES