北科大语言学内部教学教案3考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案3考研必备.docx
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北科大语言学内部教学教案3考研必备
Lecture3Phonetics
3.1Phoneticsandphonology语音学与音系学
3.2Speechorgans言语器官
3.3TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标
3.4Consonants辅音
3.5Vowels元音
3.6Coarticulationandphonetictranscription协同发音和标音法
3.1Speechproductionandperception
Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.
Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.Whenwecommunicatewitheachotherusinglanguage,thereareusuallyatleasttwopersonsinvolved.Oneisthespeaker,whoisthemessagesender.Theotheristhehearer,themessagereceiver.Thespeakerproducesthespeech,andhisspeechistransmittedtothehearer,usuallyintheformofsoundwaves.
Whenwestudyspeechsounds,wemaystudytheproduction,fromtheperspectiveofthespeaker.Thatisarticulatoryphonetics.Ittriestoanswerthefollowingquestions:
1)Whatvocalorgansareusedinproducingsounds;2)Howthevocalorgansmovetomakeasound–differentwaysofproducingsounds.Whenwestudytheperceptionofsounds,fromthehearer’spointofview,wehaveauditoryphonetics.Butuptonowwestilllackpropermeanstoidentityandmeasurethesounds.Solittleisknowninthisarea.Whenwestudythetransmissionofspeechsounds,wehaveacousticphonetics.Inthisstudy,wepayattentiontothephysicalpropertiesofsounds,forexample,frequency(频度),intensity(强度),etc.Specialinstrumentsareusedinthisstudy,forexample,oscillograph(声波器),soundspectrograph(频谱仪).
Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimsto‘discovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur’.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.
3.2Speechorgans
Speechorgansarealsocalledvocalorgans,referringtothepartsofhumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.Manydifferentpartsofourbodyareinvolvedwhenwespeak,includingthelungs,thetrachea(orwindpipe,气管),thethroat,thenoseandthemouth.
3.2.1Theprocessofproducingasound
Whensoundsareproduced,thereisusuallyanairstreamastheirsourceofenergy.Inmostcases,theairstreamcomesfromthethelungs.Itisforcedoutofthelungsandthenpassesthroughthebronchioles(细支气管)andbronchi(支气管),aseriesofbranchingtubes,intothetrachea.Thentheairismodifiedatvariouspointsinvariouswaysinthelarynx,themouthandthenose.Themouthandthenoseareusuallyreferredtoastheoralcavity(口腔)andthenasalcavity(鼻腔).Nowwe’llgointodetailaboutthespeechorgansbyaddressingthedifferentfunctionstheyplayinproducingsounds.
3.2.2Producerofvoice发音体
Thisrefersinmostcasestothelarynx(喉).Thelarynxisatthetopofthetrachea.ThefrontofitisprotrudingmalesandcalledAdam’sapple.Itcontainsthevocalcords(声带),alsocalledvocalfoldsandvocalbands.Thesearetwomembranes(薄膜)inthelarynx.Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledglottis(声门).Abovethevocalcordsthere’retheventricularfolds(膨胀带,假声带)。
ThefrontofvocalcordsandventricularfoldsjointogetheratthebackoftheAdam’sapple.Therearofthefoldsremainapartandcanmoveintovariouspositions.
Thevocalcordshasthreemainfunctions:
1)Theycanbeclosedtightlyandthenopensuddenly.Inthiscase,anexplosionisheard.Thissoundiscalleda“glottalstop”(声门塞音).2)whenthevocalcordsaredrawnapart,airgoesthroughfreelyandthesoundproducedisvoicelesssoundlike/s,k,t/;3)Whenthevocalcordsareclosetogether,theaircausesthemtovibrateandwegetvoicedconsonantslike/b,d,g/.
3.2.3Thevocaltract声道
Thepharynx,mouthandnoseformthethreecavitiesofthevocaltract.Thisistheplacewheresoundsaremodifiedandamplifiedbygivingresonancetothesounds.Soitusedtobereferredtoasresonatingcavities.Ifwecomparethevocaltracttothebodyofaviolin,thevocalcordsarejustlikestrings.
Thepharynxistheupperpartofthethroat(thelowerpartlarynx).Itconnectstothenasalandoralcavities.Soundsareamplifiedinthepharynx.
Theoralcavity,orthemouth,isthemostimportantpartinthevocaltract.Startingfromthefront,theupperpartofthemouthincludestheupperlip,theupperteeth,thealveolarridge,thehardpalate,thesoftpalate(orthevelum),andtheuvula.Thesoftpalatecanbeloweredtoallowairtopassthroughthenasalcavity.Whentheoralcavityisatthesametimeblocked,aNASALsoundisproduced.
Thebottompartofthemouthcontainsthelowerlip,thelowerteeth,thetongue,andthemandible(i.e.thelowerjaw).Inphonetics,thetongueisdividedintofiveparts:
thetip,theblade,thefront,thebackandtheroot.Inphonology,thecorrespondingsoundsmadewiththesepartsofthetongueareoftenreferredtoasCORONAL(tipandblade舌尖音,舌面前音),DORSAL(frontandback舌中音,舌背音)andRADICAL(root根音).
3.3TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标
3.3.1Segmentsanddivergences
GeorgeBernardShawonceinventedaword“ghoti”.Heintendedittomean“fish”.Youmayask:
Howcome?
“gh”comesfrom“enough”,“o”from“women”and“ti”from“nation”.ThisisatypicalexampletoshowthedivergencebetweenthesoundandwritingsymbolofEnglishwords.Whenweproducetheword“fish”slowly,wecanperceivethedifferentsegments(音段)inthisword,/f/,/i/and//.ThereasonforthedivergenceisthattherearemoresoundsinEnglishthantheletterscanrepresent.Forthisreason,wehavetoturntophonetictranscriptiontomakesureofthecorrectpronunciationofaword.
3.3.2TheIPA
In1886,thePhoneticTeachers'AssociationwasinauguratedbyasmallgroupoflanguageteachersinFrancewhohadfoundthepracticeofphoneticsusefulintheirteachingandwishedtopopularizetheirmethods.ItwaschangedtoitspresenttitleoftheINTERNATIONALPHONETICASSOCIATION(IPA)in1897.
OneofthefirstactivitiesoftheAssociationwastoproduceajournalinwhichthecontentswereprintedentirelyinphonetictranscription.TheideaofestablishingaphoneticalphabetwasfirstproposedbytheDanishgrammarianandphoneticianOttoJespersen(1860-1943)in1886,andthefirstversionoftheINTERNATIONALPHONETICALPHABET(theIPAchart)waspublishedinAugust1888.Itsmainprincipleswerethatthereshouldbeaseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.ThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyRomanalphabetlettersaspossible,usingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.Theseprinciplescontinuetobefollowedtoday.
TheIPAcharthasbeenrevisedandcorrectedseveraltimesandiswidelyusedindictionariesandtextbooksthroughouttheworld.Thelatestversionwasrevisedin1993andupdatedin1996.
IntheIPAchart,thesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoCONSONANTSandVOWELS,whichwillbediscussedindetailinthenextsection.Theconsonantsarethendividedintopulmonicandnon-pulmonicconsonants:
PULMONICsoundsareproducedbypushingairoutofthelungs,asinmostcircumstances,whileNON-PULMONICsoundsareproducedbyeithersuckingairintothemouth,inthecaseofclicks,orclosingtheglottisandmanipulatingtheairbetweentheglottisandaplaceofarticulationfurtherforwardinthevocaltract,asisthecaseofimplosivesandejectives.Thevowelsareshowntheirrelevantpositionsinacross-sectionaldiagramoftheoralcavity.
The“othersymbols”areactuallyagroupofconsonantsthatinvolvemorethanoneplaceormannerofarticulation,whichcannotbeplacedintooneoftheslotsintheconsonantchart.
TheDIACRITICSareadditionalsymbolsormarksusedtogetherwiththeconsonantandvowelsymbolstoindicatenuancesofchangeintheirpronunciation.Thesuprasegmentalsareusedtorepresentstressandsyllables,whereasthelastgroupofsymbolsisusedtoshowtonaldifferencesandintonationpatterns.
3.4Consonants
Inthedescriptionofsoundsegments,abasicdistinctionismadebetweenconsonantsandvowels.Consonantsarethosesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereistheobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.Incontrast,intheproductionofvowels,nosuchobstructionisformed.Thereforewecanseethedistinctionbetweenconsonantsandvowelsliesintheobstructionoftheairstream.Withthisdistinction,wehavedifferentwaystodescribeconsonantsandvowels.
Theoreticallyspeaking,asoundshouldeitherbeaconsonantoravowel.ButinEnglishthereisasmallgroupthatiscalled“semi-vowel”or“semi-consonant”.Theyare/h/,/w/and/j/.Thetrendtodayistoviewtheseso-called“semi-vowels”asconsonants.Thatistosay,weusetheindefinitearticle“a”beforenounsstartingwiththesesounds.
Intheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.Forexample,theinitialsoundin“bad”involvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.
InthedescriptionofEnglishconsonants,wetryto
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