Chapter 2 SourcesEvidences of International Law.docx
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Chapter 2 SourcesEvidences of International Law.docx
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Chapter2SourcesEvidencesofInternationalLaw
ChapterTwoSourcesandEvidencesofInternationalLaw
A.Topics:
1.Whatdoesitmeanbysources(渊源)?
2.Whatarethesourcesofinternationallaw?
3.Howtodistinguishlaw-makingtreaties(造法性条约)andtreaty-contracts(契约性条约)?
4.Howiscustomaryinternationallawcreatedandascertained?
5.Whataretheevidencesofinternationallaw?
6.Whataresoftlaws(软法)?
7.Whatarethenon-consensualsourcesofInternationallaw?
8.Whataregeneralprinciplesoflaw(一般法律原则)?
9.Whatarejuscogens(强行法)?
10.Howsignificantarejudicialdecisionsandtheteachingsofpublicists?
B.ReadingMaterials:
MalcolmN.Shaw,InternationalLaw(5thEd.,CambridgeUniv.Press,2003,pp.65-67,88-92)
3.Sources
Ascertainment(确定)ofthelawonanygivenpointindomesticlegalordersisnotusuallytoodifficultaprocess.IntheEnglishlegalsystem,forexample,onelookstoseewhetherthematteriscoveredbyanActofParliament(国会法案)and,ifitis,thelawreports(法律报告)areconsultedastohowithasbeeninterpretedbythecourts.Iftheparticularpointisnotspecificallyreferredtoinastatute(制定法),courtcaseswillbeexaminedtoelicit(得出)therequiredinformation.Inotherwords,thereisadefinitemethodofdiscoveringwhatthelawis.Inadditiontoverifyingthecontentsoftherules,thismethodalsodemonstrateshowthelawiscreated,namely,byparliamentarylegislation(议会立法)orjudicialcase-law(司法判例法).Thisgivesadegreeofcertaintytothelegalprocessbecauseoneisabletotellwhenaproposition(主张)hasbecomelawandthenecessarymechanism(机制)toresolveanydisputesaboutthelawisevident.***
Thecontrastisverystrikingwhenoneconsidersthesituationininternationallaw.***Thereisnosinglebodyabletocreatelawsinternationallybindinguponeveryone,norapropersystemofcourtswithcomprehensiveandcompulsoryjurisdictiontointerpret(解释)andextend(扩大范围)thelaw.Oneisthereforefacedwiththeproblemofdiscoveringwherethelawistobefoundandhowonecantellwhetheraparticularpropositionamountstoalegalrule.Thisperplexity(困境)isreinforcedbecauseoftheanarchic(无政府的)natureofworldaffairsandtheclashofcompetingsovereignties(主权者).Nevertheless,internationallawdoesexistandisascertainable.Thereare'sources'availablefromwhichtherulesmaybeextractedandanalysed.
By'sources'onemeansthoseprovisionsoperatingwithinthelegalsystemonatechnicallevel,andsuchultimatesourcesasreason(理性)ormoralityareexcluded,asaremorefunctionalsourcessuchaslibrariesandjournals.Whatisintendedisasurveyoftheprocesswherebyrulesofinternationallawemerge.
Article38
(1)oftheStatuteoftheInternationalCourtofJustice(国际法院规约)iswidelyrecognisedasthemostauthoritativestatementastothesourcesofinternationallaw.Itprovidesthat:
theCourt,whosefunctionistodecideinaccordancewithinternationallawsuchdisputesasaresubmittedtoit,shallapply:
(a)internationalconventions(国际条约),whethergeneralorparticular,establishingrulesexpresslyrecognisedbythecontestingstates(诉讼当事国);(b)internationalcustom(国际习惯),asevidenceofageneralpracticeacceptedaslaw;(c)thegeneralprinciplesoflaw(一般法律原则)recognisedbycivilisednations;(d)subjecttotheprovisionsofArticle59,judicialdecisions(司法判例)andtheteachings(学说)ofthemosthighlyqualifiedpublicists(国际法学家)ofthevariousnations,assubsidiary(辅助)meansforthedeterminationofrulesoflaw.
AlthoughthisformulationistechnicallylimitedtothesourcesofinternationallawwhichtheInternationalCourtmustapply,infactsincethefunctionoftheCourtistodecidedisputessubmittedtoit'inaccordancewithinternationallaw'andsinceallmemberstatesoftheUnitedNationsareipsofacto(事实上)partiestotheStatutebyvirtueof(依照)article93oftheUnitedNationsCharter(联合国宪章)(statesthatarenon-membersoftheUNcanspecificallybecomepartiestotheStatuteoftheCourt:
SwitzerlandwasthemostobviousexampleofthisuntilitjoinedtheUNin2002),thereisnoseriouscontentionthattheprovisionexpressestheuniversalperceptionastotheenumeration(列举)ofsourcesofinternationallaw.
Somewritershavesoughttocategorizethedistinctionsinthisprovision,sothatinternationalconventions,customandthegeneralprinciplesoflawaredescribedasthethreeexclusivelaw-creatingprocesseswhilejudicialdecisionsandacademicwritingsareregardedaslaw-determiningagencies(手段),dealingwiththeverificationofallegedrules.Butinrealityitisnotalwayspossibletomakehardandfast(严格的)divisions.Thedifferentfunctionsoverlaptoagreatextentsothatinmanycasestreaties(orconventions)merelyreiterateacceptedrulesofcustomarylaw,andjudgmentsoftheInternationalCourtofJusticemayactuallycreatelawinthesamewaythatmunicipaljudgesformulatenewlawintheprocessofinterpretingexistinglaw.
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Treaties
***
Treaties(条约)areknownbyavarietyofdifferingnames,rangingfromConventions(公约),InternationalAgreements(国际协定),Pacts(条约),GeneralActs(总文件),Charters(宪章),throughtoStatutes(规约),Declarations(宣言)andCovenants(盟约).Allthesetermsreferto***thecreationofwrittenagreementswherebythestatesparticipatingbindthemselveslegallytoactinaparticularwayortosetupparticularrelationsbetweenthemselves.Aseriesofconditionsandarrangementsarelaidoutwhichthepartiesobligethemselvestocarryout.
Itispossibletodividetreatiesinto'law-making'treaties(造法性条约),whichareintendedtohaveuniversalorgeneralrelevance,and'treaty-contracts'(契约性条约),whichapplyonlyasbetweentwo,orasmallnumberofstates.Suchadistinctionisintendedtoreflectthegeneralorlocalapplicabilityofaparticulartreatyandtherangeofobligationsimposed.Itcannotberegardedashardandfastandtherearemanygrayareasofoverlapanduncertainty.
Treatiesareexpressagreements(明示协议)***.Thenumberoftreatiesenteredintohasexpandedoverthelastcentury,witnessthegrowingnumberofvolumesoftheUnitedNationsTreatySeries(联合国条约集)ortheUnitedKingdomTreatySeries.Theyfulfillavitalroleininternationalrelations.
Asgovernmentalcontrolsincreaseandthetechnologicalandcommunicationsrevolutionsaffectinternationallife,thenumberofissueswhichrequiresomeformofinter-stateregulationmultiplies.
Formanywriters,treatiesconstitutethemostimportantsourcesofinternationallawastheyrequiretheexpressconsentofthecontractingparties.Treatiesarethusseenassuperiortocustom,whichisregardedinanyeventasaformoftacitagreement(默示协议).AsexamplesofimportanttreatiesonemaymentiontheCharteroftheUnitedNations,theGenevaConventionsonthetreatmentofprisonersandtheprotectionofcivilians(关于囚犯待遇的日内瓦公约和关于战时保护平民的日内瓦公约)andtheViennaConventionsonDiplomaticRelations(维也纳外交关系公约).Allkindsofagreementsexist,rangingfromtheregulationofouterspace(外空、太空)explorationtothecontrolofdrugsandthecreationofinternationalfinancialanddevelopmentinstitutions.Itwouldbeimpossibletotelephoneabroadorpostaletteroverseasortakeanaeroplanetoothercountrieswithoutthevariousinternationalagreementsthathavelaiddownthenecessary,recognizedconditionsofoperation.
Itfollowsfromtheessenceofaninternationaltreatythat,likeacontract,itsetsdownaseriesofpropositionswhicharethenregardedasbindingupontheparties.Howthenisitpossibletotreatconventionsassourcesofinternationallaw,overandabove(在……之外)theobligationsimposeduponthecontractingparties?
Itisinthiscontextthatonecanunderstandtheterm'law-makingtreaties'.Theyareintendedtohaveaneffectgenerally,notrestrictively,andtheyaretobecontrastedwiththosetreatieswhichmerelyregulatelimitedissuesbetweenafewstates.Law-makingtreatiesarethoseagreementswherebystateselaboratetheirperceptionofinternationallawuponanygiventopicorestablishnewruleswhicharetoguidethemforthefutureintheirinternationalconduct.Suchlaw-makingtreaties,ofnecessity,requiretheparticipationofalargenumberofstatestoemphasizethiseffect,andmayproducerulesthatwillbindall.Theyconstitutenormativetreaties(规范性条约),agreementsthatprescriberulesofconducttobefollowed.ExamplesofsuchtreatiesmayincludetheAntarcticTreaty(南极条约)andtheGenocideConvention(灭绝种族公约).Therearealsomanyagreementswhichdeclaretheexistinglaworcodifyexistingcustomaryrules,suchastheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelationsof1961.
Partiesthatdonotsignandratifytheparticulartreatyinquestionarenotboundbyitsterms.ThisisageneralruleandwasillustratedintheNorthSeaContinentalShelfcases(北海大陆架案,西德与丹麦,西德与荷兰,1967-69)91whereWestGermanyhadnotratifiedtherelevantConventionandwasthereforeundernoobligationtoheed(服从obey)itsterms.However,wheretreatiesreflectcustomarylawthennon-partiesarebound,notbecauseitisatreatyprovisionbutbecauseitreaffirmsaruleorrulesofcustomaryinternationallaw.Similarly,non-partiesmaycometoacceptthatprovisionsinaparticulartreatycangeneratecustomarylaw,dependingalwaysuponthenatureoftheagreement,thenumberofparticipantsandotherrelevantfactors.
***
Itisnowestablishedthatevenwhereatreatyrulecomesintobeingcoveringthesamegroundasacustomaryrule,thelatterwillnotbesimplyabsorbedwithintheformerbutwillmaintainitsseparateexistence.TheCourtintheNicaraguacase(“在尼加拉瓜境内及针对尼加拉瓜的军事及准军事行动案”,尼加拉瓜诉美国,1984-1991)96didnotaccepttheargumentoftheUSthatthenorm
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