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English Articles.docx
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EnglishArticles
EnglishArticles1
Darwin'sLivingLegacy
Whenthe26-year-oldCharlesDarwinsailedintotheGalápagosIslandsin1835onboardtheHMSBeagle,hetooklittlenoticeofacollectionofbirdsthatarenowintimatelyassociatedwithhisname.Thenaturalist,infact,misclassifiedasgrosbeakssomeofthebirdsthatarenowknownasDarwin’sfinches.AfterDarwinreturnedtoEngland,ornithologistandartistJohnGouldbegantomakeillustrationsofagroupofpreservedbirdspecimensbroughtbackintheBeagle’shold,andtheartistrecognizedthemalltobedifferentspeciesoffinches.FromGould’swork,Darwin,theself-taughtnaturalist,cametounderstandhowthefinches’beaksizemusthavechangedoverthegenerationstoaccommodatedifferencesinthesizeofseedsorinsectsconsumedonthevariousislands.“Seeingthisgradationanddiversityofstructureinonesmall,intimatelyrelatedgroupofbirds,onemightreallyfancythatfromanoriginalpaucityofbirdsinthisarchipelago,onespecieshadbeentakenandmodifiedfordifferentends,”henotedinTheVoyageofTheBeagle,publishedafterhisreturnin1839.TwentyyearslaterDarwinwouldtranslatehisunderstandingoffinchadaptationtoconditionsondifferentislandsintoafullyformedtheoryofevolution,oneemphasizingthepowerofnaturalselectiontoensurethatmorefavorabletraitsendureinsuccessivegenerations.Darwin’stheory,corefeaturesofwhichhavewithstoodcriticalscrutinyfromscientificandreligiouscritics,constitutedonlythestartingpointforanendlesslyrichsetofresearchquestionsthatcontinuetoinspirepresent-dayscientists.Biologistsarestillseekingexperimentalresultsthataddresshownaturalselectionproceedsatthemolecularlevel—andhowitaffectsthedevelopmentofnewspecies.Darwin’sfamedfinchesplayacontinuingroleinprovidinganswers.Thescientisthadassumedthatevolutionproceededslowly,over“thelapseofages,”apaceimperceptibletotheshortlifetimeofhumanobservers.Insteadthefincheshaveturnedintoidealresearchsubjectsforstudyingevolutioninrealtimebecausetheybreedrelativelyrapidly,areisolatedondifferentislandsandrarelymigrate.
Sincethe1970sevolutionarybiologistsPeterR.GrantandB.RosemaryGrantofPrincetonUniversityhaveusedtheGalápagosasagiantlaboratorytoobservemorethan20,000finchesandhaveshownconclusivelyhowaveragebeakandbodysizechangesinanewgenerationasElNiñoscomeandgo,shiftingclimatefromwettoarid.Theyhavealsobeenabletochroniclepossibleexamplesofnewspeciesthatarestartingtoemerge.
TheGrantsarejustoneamongmanygroupsthathaveembarkedonmissionstowitnessevo-lutioninaction,exemplarsofhowevolutioncanattimesmoveinfrenziedburstsmeasuredinyears,noteons,contradictingDarwin¡¯scharacterizationofaslowand-steadyprogression.ThesestudiesfocusonthecichlidfishoftheAfricanGreatLakes,Alaskansticklebacks,andtheEleutherodactylusfrogsofCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean,amongothers.Ruminationsonevolution¡ªoftenmusingsonhowonlythefittestprevail¡ªcarryanancientpedigree,predatingevenSocrates.The18thand19thcenturiesproducedfertilespeculationsabouthowlifehadevolved,includingideasforwardedbyDarwin¡¯sgrandfather,ErasmusDarwin,wholivedbetween1731and1802.
Darwinianevolutionwasthefirstcapableofwithstandingrigoroustestsofscientificscrutinyinboththe19thcenturyandbeyond.Todayinvestigators,equippedwithsophisticatedcameras,computersandDNA-samplingtoolsthoroughlyalientothecargoholdoftheBeagle,demonstratethecontinuedvitalityofDarwin¡¯swork.Thenaturalist¡¯srelevancetobasicscienceandpracticalpursuits¡ªfrombiotechnologytoforensicscience¡ªisthereasonforthisyear¡¯sworldwidecelebrationofthebicentennialofhisbirthandthesesquicentennialofthepublicationofhismasterwork,OntheOriginofSpeciesby
MeansofNaturalSelection,orthePreservationofFavoredRacesintheStruggleforLife.
Darwin’stheoryrepresentsafoundationalpillarofmodernsciencethatstandsalongsiderelativity,quantummechanicsandothervitalsupportstructures.JustasCopernicuscasttheearthoutfromthecenteroftheuniverse,theDarwinianuniversedisplacedhumansastheepicenterofthenaturalworld.NaturalselectionaccountsforwhatevolutionarybiologistFranciscoJ. AyalaoftheUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,hascalled“designwithoutadesigner”,atermthatparriesthestillvigorouseffortsbysometheologianstoslightthetheoryofevolution.DarwincompletedtheCopernicanRevolutionbydrawingoutforbiologythenotionofnatureasalawfulsystemofmatterinmotionthathumanreasoncanexplainwithoutrecoursetosupernaturalagencies。
Ayalawrotein2007.Inthisanniversaryyear,Darwin‘sgreatestbequestcanbefoundintheenormousbodyofresearchandtheorizingthatextendsdirectlyfromhiswritings.Italsoservestounderlinehowevolutionitselfhasundergoneradicalalterationinthepast150years,amergeroftheoriginaltheorywiththescienceofthegene,whichDarwinhadaslittleunderstandingofastheancientsdid.ThisspecialissueofScientificAmericanhighlightsmajorquestionsthatarestillbeingaddressed:
Howcommonisnaturalselection?
Towhatextentdoesnaturalselectionactuallyoccuratthemolecularlevelofthegene?
Whatistheoriginofthegeneticvariationonwhichnaturalselectionoperates?
Doesitworkbyadministeringafitnesstesttoindividualgenes,wholeorganisms,orevenentiregroupsofanimals,plantsormicrobes?
Doesitapplytohumansiftheyareabletoexercisearigidcontrolovertheirenvironmentandeventheirbiology?
ANaturalistbyNatureLikeAlbertEinsteinandothersgiftedwithgenius,Darwinmarchedtohisowndrumbeat.Heshowednosignsofacademicprecociousness.Bornintoawell-to-dofamilyintheEnglishcountryside,theyoungDarwinwasadecidedlymediocrestudentwhohatedtheregimentationofacurriculumcenteredontheclassics.(Einsteinwasarebelliousyouthandanerraticuniversitystudent.)Followinghisfather’sdesire,Darwinenteredmedicalschoolbutwasrepulsedbycuttingopenahumancadaverandneverfinishedhisstudies.Paradoxically,hehadlittleproblemkillingbirdsandsmallanimalswhenhunting,justoneofthetaskshesetforhimselfonforaystowatchwildlifeandcollectspecimens.DespairingthatCharleswouldeveramounttoanything,RobertDarwinorderedhissecondsontoapplytotheUniversityofCambridgetoobtainadegreethatwouldallowhimtojointheclergy.Themanwhoseideasareviewedbysomeclericsasafundamentalinsulttoreligiousfaithgraduated(barely)withadegreeintheology.
Althoughhisfathertriedtodissuadehim,DarwinjumpedattheoffertobecomeanaturalistonboardasurveyshipnamedtheBeagle,anexperiencehewouldlatercharacterizeas“thefirstrealtrainingoreducationofmymind.”Thefive-year,around-the-globejourneyprovidedexposuretothenaturalworldandampletimeforContemplationthatshapedhislaterthinking.MilestonesalongthewayincludedexperiencingthegreatdiversityofspeciesintropicalBrazilanddiscoveryoffossils,includingagiantsloth400milessouthofBuenosAires,whichcausedhimtoponderhowthesecreaturesbecameextinct.AccountsbygauchosontheArgentinepampasoftheirkillingofindigenouspeoplestaughthimabouttheprimal,territorialimpulsesofthehumananimal.Andofcourse,therewastherelativelybrief,five-weekstayinthefryingHotGalapagos,wherehewasabletocontemplatehowcloselyrelatedspeciesofturtlesandmockingbirdsinhabitedneighboringislands,implyingacommonancestryforbothgroups.
Atsea,DarwinalsoreadavidlytwovolumesofCharlesLyell’sPrinciplesofGeologythatembracedtheideaofuniformitarianisminwhichtheprocessesoferosion,sedimentationandvolcanicactivityoccurredinthepastataboutthesameratesastheydonow.Lyellrejectedthethenprevailingcatastrophism,whichholdsthatsudden,violenteventsdrivenbysupernaturalforceshaddriventheshapingofthelandscape.AtrekinlandintheAndes,wheretheexplorersfoundanancientmarinedepositupliftedto7,000feet,helpedtobringLyell’sideasvividlytolife.Darwinhadnoawarenessthathehadembarkedonatripthatwouldforevertransformthebiologicalsciences.The57-monthjourneyproducednomomentofsuddenrealization,nothingequivalenttoEinsteinis’sannusmirabilisof1905inwhichhepublishedpapersaboutspecialrelativity,Brownianmotionandotherthemes.Thetreasuretroveofthejourneywaswhattodaycouldbecalledanimmensedatabase:
acollectionof368pagesofzoologynotes,1,383pagesofgeologynotes,a770-pagediary,inadditionto1,529speciesinbottlesofalcoholand3,907driedspecimens,nottomentionlivetortoisescaughtintheGalpagos.BythetimetheBeaglereturnedtoEnglandinOctoberof1836,Darwin¡¯sletters,alongwithsomespecimens,hadcirculatedamongBritishscientists,cementinghisreputationasapeer.Thisrecognitionassuredthathisfather¡¯saspirationsforhisson’splaceintheclergywerecastaside.WithinafewyearsDarwinmarriedafirstcousin,EmmaWedgwood,andthenmovedtoacountryestatewhosegardensandgreenhouseswouldprovidealivinglaboratoryforhisworkuntilhisdeath,anexistencemadepossiblebythefamily’ssubstantialwealth.Unexplainedillness,withsymptomsrangingfromheadachestoheartflutterstomusclespasms,plaguedDarwinaftertheexpeditionuntilhediedin1882,quashinganythoughtsoffurtherexpeditions.
OriginsofaTheory
Darwinhadbeguntoformulatehistheoriesbyt
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