GRE阅读资料之文科.docx
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GRE阅读资料之文科.docx
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GRE阅读资料之文科
Americanhistory
AfricanAmerican
Slaveryera
Anartist'sconceptionofCrispusAttucks(1723–1770),thefirst"martyr"oftheAmericanRevolution.
Mainarticles:
SlaveryintheUnitedStatesandAtlanticslavetrade
ThefirstAfricanslavesarrivedinthepresent-dayUnitedStatesaspartoftheSanMigueldeGualdapecolony(mostlikelylocatedintheWinyahBayareaofpresent-daySouthCarolina),foundedbySpanishexplorerLucasVásquezdeAyllónin1526.Theill-fatedcolonywasalmostimmediatelydisruptedbyafightoverleadership,duringwhichtheslavesrevoltedandfledthecolonytoseekrefugeamonglocalNativeAmericans.DeAyllónandmanyofthecolonistsdiedshortlyafterwardsofanepidemicandthecolonywasabandoned,leavingtheescapedslavesbehindonNorthAmericansoil.
In1565,thecolonyofSaintAugustineinFlorida,foundedbyPedroMenendezdeAviles,becamethefirstpermanentEuropeansettlementinNorthAmerica.ItincludedanunknownnumberoffreeandenslavedAfricansthatwerepartofthiscolonialexpedition.
ThefirstrecordedAfricansinBritishNorthAmerica(includingmostofthefutureUnitedStates)arrivedin1619inJamestown,Virginia.AsEnglishsettlersdiedfromharshconditions,moreandmoreAfricanswerebroughttoworkaslaborers.TheAfricanswerelikelytreatedasindenturedservants,similarinlegalpositiontopoorEnglishindenturees,whotradedseveralyearslaborinexchangeforpassagetoAmerica.[7]Africanscouldlegallyraisecropsandcattletopurchasetheirfreedom.[8]Theyraisedfamilies,marryingotherAfricansandsometimesintermarryingwithNativeAmericansorEnglishsettlers.[9]Bythe1640sand1650s,severalAfricanfamiliesownedfarmsaroundJamestownandsomebecamewealthybycolonialstandards.
Thepopularconceptionofarace-basedslavesystemdidnotfullydevelopuntilthe18thcentury.TheDutchWestIndiaCompanyintroducedslaveryin1625withtheimportationofelevenblackslavesintoNewAmsterdam(present-dayNewYorkCity).Allthecolony'sslaves,however,werefreeduponitssurrendertotheBritish.[10]MassachusettswasthefirstBritishcolonytolegallyrecognizeslaveryin1641.Itwasnotuntil1662thatVirginiaruledthataslavemother'schildrenwouldremainslaves.[11]
Thefirstblackcongregationsandchurcheswereorganizedbefore1800inbothnorthernandsoutherncitiesfollowingtheGreatAwakening.By1775,Africansmadeup20%ofthepopulationintheAmericancolonies,whichmadethemthesecondlargestethnicgroupaftertheEnglish.[12]Duringthe1770s,Africans,bothenslavedandfree,helpedrebelliousEnglishcolonistssecureAmericanIndependencebydefeatingtheBritishintheAmericanRevolution.[13]AfricansandEnglishmenfoughtsidebysideandwerefullyintegrated.[14]JamesArmistead,anAfricanAmerican,playedalargepartinmakingpossiblethe1781Yorktownvictory,whichestablishedtheUnitedStatesasanindependentnation.[15]OtherprominentAfricanAmericanswerePrinceWhippleandOliverCromwell,whoarebothdepictedinthefrontoftheboatinGeorgeWashington'sfamous1776CrossingtheDelawareportrait.
By1860,therewere3.5millionenslavedAfricanAmericansintheUnitedStatesduetotheAtlanticslavetrade,andanother500,000AfricanAmericanslivedfreeacrossthecountry.[16]In1863,duringtheAmericanCivilWar,PresidentAbrahamLincolnsignedtheEmancipationProclamation.TheproclamationdeclaredthatallslavesinstateswhichhadsecededfromtheUnionwerefree.[17]AdvancingUniontroopsenforcedtheproclamationwithTexasbeingthelaststatetobeemancipatedin1865.[18]
NativeAmericans
ThisarticleisabouttheindigenouspeopleoftheUnitedStates.
NativeAmericansintheUnitedStatesaretheindigenouspeoplesinNorthAmericawithintheboundariesofthepresent-daycontinentalUnitedStates,partsofAlaska,andtheislandstateofHawaii.Theyarecomposedofnumerous,distincttribes,states,andethnicgroups,manyofwhichsurviveasintactpoliticalcommunities.ThetermsusedtorefertoNativeAmericanshavebeencontroversial.Accordingtoa1995USCensusBureausetofhomeinterviews,mostoftherespondentswithanexpressedpreferencerefertothemselvesasAmericanIndiansorIndians,andthistermhasbeenadoptedbymajornewspapersandsomeacademicgroups.
Sincetheendofthe15thcentury,themigrationofEuropeanstotheAmericas,andtheirimportationofAfricansasslaves,hasledtocenturiesofconflictandadjustmentbetweenOldandNewWorldsocieties.EuropeanscreatedmostoftheearlywrittenhistoricalrecordaboutNativeAmericansafterthecolonists'immigrationtotheAmericas.[3]ManyNativeAmericanslivedashunter-gatherersocietiesandtoldtheirhistoriesbyoraltraditions.Inmanygroups,womencarriedoutsophisticatedcultivationofnumerousvarietiesofstaplecrops:
maize,beansandsquash.Theindigenouscultureswerequitedifferentfromthoseoftheagrarian,proto-industrial,mostlyChristianimmigrantsfromwesternEurasia.ManyNativecultureswerematrilineal;thepeopleoccupiedlandsforuseoftheentirecommunity,forhuntingoragriculture.Europeanshadpatriarchalculturesandhaddevelopedconceptsofindividualpropertyrightsinlandthatwereextremelydifferent.
ThedifferencesinculturebetweentheestablishednativeAmericansandimmigrantEuropeans,aswellasshiftingalliancesamongdifferentnationsofeachculturethroughthecenturies,causedextensivepoliticaltension,ethnicviolenceandsocialdisruption.TheAmericanIndianssufferedhighfatalitiesfromthecontactwithinfectiousEurasiandiseases,towhichtheyhadnoacquiredimmunity.EpidemicsafterEuropeancontactcausedthegreatestlossoflifeforindigenouspopulations.Estimatesofthepre-ColumbianpopulationofwhattodayconstitutestheU.S.varysignificantly,rangingfrom1millionto18million.[4][5]
AfterthecoloniesrevoltedagainstGreatBritainandestablishedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,PresidentGeorgeWashingtonandHenryKnoxconceivedoftheideaof"civilizing"NativeAmericansinpreparationforassimilationasUnitedStatescitizens.[6][7][8][9][10]Assimilation(whethervoluntaryaswiththeChoctaw,[11][12]orforced)becameaconsistentpolicythroughAmericanadministrations.Duringthe19thcentury,theideologyofManifestdestinybecameintegraltotheAmericannationalistmovement.ExpansionofEuropean-AmericanpopulationstothewestaftertheAmericanRevolutionresultedinincreasingpressureonNativeAmericanlands,warfarebetweenthegroups,andrisingtensions.In1830,theU.S.CongresspassedtheIndianRemovalAct,authorizingthegovernmenttorelocatemostNativeAmericansoftheDeepSouthfromtheirhomelandseastoftheMississippiRivertotheWest,toaccommodateEuropean-AmericanexpansionfromthecoastalUnitedStates.Governmentofficialsthoughtthatbydecreasingtheconflictbetweenthegroups,theycouldhelptheIndianssurvive.AmericanIndianshavecontinuedtolivethroughouttheSouth.Theyhaveorganizedandbeenrecognizedastribessincethelate20thcenturybyseveralstatesand,insomecases,bythefederalgovernment.
ThefirstEuropeanAmericanstoencounterthewesterntribesweregenerallyfurtradersandtrappers.TherewerealsoJesuitmissionariesactiveintheNorthernTier.AsUnitedStatesexpansionreachedintotheAmericanWest,settlerandminermigrantscameintoincreasingconflictwiththeGreatPlainstribes.Thesewerecomplexnomadicculturesbasedonusinghorsesandtravelingseasonallytohuntbison.TheycarriedoutstrongresistancetoUnitedStatesincursionsinthedecadesaftertheAmericanCivilWar,inaseriesof"IndianWars",whichwerefrequentupuntilthe1890s.Thecomingofthetranscontinentalrailroadincreasedpressuresonthewesterntribes.Overtime,theU.S.forcedaseriesoftreatiesandlandcessionsbythetribes,andestablishedreservationsfortheminmanywesternstates.U.S.agentsencouragedNativeAmericanstoadoptEuropean-stylefarmingandsimilarpursuits,butthereservationlandswereoftentoopooranddrytosupportsuchuses.
ContemporaryNativeAmericanshaveauniquerelationshipwiththeUnitedStatesbecausetheymaybemembersofnations,tribes,orbandsofNativeAmericanswhohavesovereigntyorindependencefromthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates.Sincethelate1960s,AmericanIndianactivismhasledtothebuildingofculturalinfrastructureandwiderrecognitionoftheiruniqueidentitiesandcontributionsthroughoutUnitedStatessociety:
theyhavefoundedindependentnewspapers,communityschools,tribalcolleges,andtribalmuseumsandlanguageprograms;academicinstitutionsacrossthecountryhavecreatedNativeAmericanstudiesprograms;nationalandstatemuseumshavebeenfoundedtorecognizeAmericanIndians'historicandcurrentcontributions.AmericanIndianauthorshavebeenincreasinglypublished(withthevastmajoritywritinginthecoloniallanguage,English);otherAmericanIndiansworkashistoriansandinawidevarietyofoccupations.Traditionalandcontemporaryartistsandcraftsmenexpresstheiridentities.Culturalactivismhasledtoanexpansionofeffortstoteachandpreserveindigenouslanguagesforyoungergenerations.Theirsocietiesandculturesflourishwithinalargerpopulationofdescendantsofimmigrants(bothvoluntaryandinvoluntary):
African,Asian,MiddleEastern,andEuropeanpeoples.Atonetime,theUSrequiredNativeAmericanstogiveuptribalmembershipinordertobeacceptedascitizens.Thispolicychangedandin1924,NativeAmericanswhowerenotalreadyU.S.citizensweregrantedcitizenshipbyCongress.
Civilrightsmovement
Thecivilrightsmovementwasaw
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