7外文资料翻译.docx
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7外文资料翻译.docx
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7外文资料翻译
InstituteofDevelompmentStudies,1999,12
(2):
1-8.
ACommodityChainsofFrameworkforAnalyzingGlobalIndustries
GaryGereffi
DukeUniversity
Abstrast:
Inthispaper,wefouceonthe"producer-driven"and"buyer-driven"globalcommoditychains,whichisunderthedevelopmentofindustrialandcommercialcapital.Andthenanalyzetheirfeaturesandtherelationshipwithdevelopmentstrategies.
Keywords:
Globalization;CommodityChains;developmentstrategies
Background
Inglobalcapitalism,economicactivityisnotonlyinternationalinscope,itisalsoglobalinorganization."Internationalization"referstothegeographicspreadofeconomicactivitiesacrossnationalboundaries.Assuch,itisnotanewphenomenon.Indeed,ithasbeenaprominentfeatureoftheworldeconomysinceatleasttheseventeenthcenturywhencolonialempiresbegantocarveuptheglobeinsearchofrawmaterialsandnewmarketsfortheirmanufacturedexports."Globalization"ismuchmorerecentthaninternationalizationbecauseitimpliesfunctionalintegrationbetweeninternationallydispersedactivities(Dicken,1998:
5).
Typesofglobalization
Industrialandcommercialcapitalhavepromotedglobalizationbyestablishingtwodistincttypesofinternationaleconomicnetworks,whichcanbecalled"producer-driven"and"buyer-driven"globalcommoditychains,respectively(Gereffi,1994;1999).Acommoditychainreferstothewholerangeofactivitiesinvolvedinthedesign,production,andmarketingofaproduct(seeGereffiandKorzeniewicz,1994foranoverviewofthisframework).Producer-drivencommoditychainsarethoseinwhichlarge,usuallytransnational,manufacturersplaythecentralrolesincoordinatingproductionnetworks(includingtheirbackwardandforwardlinkages).Thisischaracteristicofcapital-andtechnology-intensiveindustriessuchasautomobiles,aircraft,computers,semiconductors,andheavymachinery.Theautomobileindustryoffersaclassicillustrationofaproducer-drivenchain,withmultilayeredproductionsystemsthatinvolvethousandsoffirms(includingparents,subsidiaries,andsubcontractors).Inthe1980s,theaverageJapaneseautomaker'sproductionsystem,forexample,contained170first-tier,4,700second-tier,and31,600third-tiersubcontractors(Hill1989:
466).FloridaandKenney(1991)foundthatJapaneseautomobilemanufacturersactuallyreconstitutedmanyaspectsoftheirhome-countrysuppliernetworksinNorthAmerica.Doner(1991)extendedthisframeworktohighlightthecomplexforcesthatdriveJapaneseautomakerstocreateregionalproductionschemesforthesupplyofautopartsinahalf-dozennationsinEastandSoutheastAsia.Henderson(1989)andBorrus(1997)alsosupportthenotionthatproducer-drivencommoditychainshaveestablishedanEastAsiandivisionoflaborintheirstudiesoftheinternationalizationoftheU.S.andJapanesesemiconductorindustries.
Buyer-drivencommoditychainsrefertothoseindustriesinwhichlargeretailers,marketers,andbrandedmanufacturersplaythepivotalrolesinsettingupdecentralizedproductionnetworksinavarietyofexportingcountries,typicallylocatedinthethirdworld.Thispatternoftrade-ledindustrializationhasbecomecommoninlabor-intensive,consumergoodsindustriessuchasgarments,footwear,toys,housewares,consumerelectronics,andavarietyofhandicrafts.Productionisgenerallycarriedoutbytierednetworksofthirdworldcontractorsthatmakefinishedgoodsforforeignbuyers.Thespecificationsaresuppliedbythelargeretailersormarketersthatorderthegoods.
Features
Oneofthemaincharacteristicsofthefirmsthatfitthebuyer-drivenmodel,includingretailerslikeWal-Mart,SearsRoebuck,andJ.C.Penney,athleticfootwearcompanieslikeNikeandReebok,andfashion-orientedapparelcompanieslikeLizClaiborneandTheLimited,isthatthesecompaniesdesignand/ormarket—butdonotmake—thebrandedproductstheyorder.Theyarepartofanewbreedof"manufacturerswithoutfactories"thatseparatethephysicalproductionofgoodsfromthedesignandmarketingstagesoftheproductionprocess.Profitsinbuyer-drivenchainsderivenotfromscale,volume,andtechnologicaladvancesasinproducer-drivenchains,butratherfromuniquecombinationsofhigh-valueresearch,design,sales,marketing,andfinancialservicesthatallowtheretailers,designers,andmarketerstoactasstrategicbrokersinlinkingoverseasfactoriesandtraderswithevolvingproductnichesintheirmainconsumermarkets(Gereffi,1994).
Profitabilityisgreatestintherelativelyconcentratedsegmentsofglobalcommoditychainscharacterizedbyhighbarrierstotheentryofnewfirms.Inproducer-drivenchains,manufacturersmakingadvancedproductslikeaircraft,automobiles,andcomputersarethekeyeconomicagentsnotonlyintermsoftheirearnings,butalsointheirabilitytoexertcontroloverbackwardlinkageswithrawmaterialandcomponentsuppliers,andforwardlinkagesintodistributionandretailing.Theleadfirmsinproducer-drivenchainsusuallybelongtoglobaloligopolies.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,arecharacterizedbyhighlycompetitiveandgloballydecentralizedfactorysystems.Thecompaniesthatdevelopandsellbrand-namedproductsexertsubstantialcontroloverhow,when,andwheremanufacturingwilltakeplace,andhowmuchprofitaccruesateachstageofthechain.Thus,whereasproducer-drivencommoditychainsarecontrolledbylargemanufacturersatthepointofproduction,themainleverageinbuyer-drivenindustriesisexercisedbyretailersandmarketersatthedistributionandretailendofthechain.
Themainfeaturesofproducer-drivenandbuyer-drivencommoditychainsarehighlightedinTable1.Producer-drivenandbuyer-drivenchainsarerootedindistinctindustrialsectors,theyareledbydifferenttypesoftransnationalcapital(industrialandcommercial,respectively),andtheyvaryintheircorecompetencies(atthefirmlevel)andtheirentrybarriers(atthesectorallevel).Thefinishedgoodsinproducer-drivenchainstendtobesuppliedbycorecountrytransnationals,whilethegoodsinbuyer-drivenchainsaregenerallymadebylocallyownedfirmsindevelopingcountries.Whereastransnationalcorporationsestablishinvestment-basedverticalnetworks,theretailers,designers,andtradingcompaniesinbuyer-drivenchainssetupandcoordinatetrade-basedhorizontalnetworks.
MainCharacteristicsofProducer-DrivenandBuyer-Driven
GlobalCommodityChains
Producter-DrivenCommodityChain
Buyer-DrivenCommodityChain
DriversofGlobalcommodity
IndustrialCapital
CommercialCapital
CoreCompetencies
Research&Development;Production
Design;Marketing
BarriierstoEntry
EconomiesofScale
EconomiesofScope
EconomicsSectors
ConsumerDurables;IntermediateGoods;CapitalGoods
ConsumerNondurables
TypicalIndustries
Automobiles;Computers;Aircraft
Apparel;Footwear;Toys
OwnshipofManufacturingFirms
TransnationalFirms
LocalFirms,predominantlyindevelopingcountries
MainNetworkLinks
Investment-based
Trade-based
PredominantNetworkStucture
Vertical
Horizontal
Commoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies
Thereisanaffinitybetweencommoditychainsanddevelopmentstrategies.Theimport-substitutingindustrialization(ISI)developmentstrategy,whichprevailedinLatinAmericafornearlyfivedecadesuntilthe1970s,wasbasedonproducer-drivencommoditychains.Transnationalcorporations,whichhaveactivelytappedLatinAmerica'soil,mineral,andagriculturalresourcessincethenineteenthcentury,wereinvitedtoestablishmoreadvancedmanufacturingindustriesintheregion,beginningwithautomobileassemblyplantsinlargecountrieslikeMexico,Brazil,andArgentinainthe1920s.Bythe1950sand1960s,arangeofadvancedISIfactorieswerespreadthroughouttheregionindiverseindustriessuchaspetrochemicals,pharmaceuticals,automobiles,electricalandnon-electricalmachinery,andcomputers(GereffiandWyman,1990).Outputwasmainlydestinedforthedomesticmarket,althoughinthe1970smoreattentionwasgiventomanufacturedexportstooffsetthecostlyimportbillsassociatedwithISIdeepening.Buyer-drivencommoditychains,bycontrast,havebeenvirtuallyignoredinLatinAmericasincethetransnationalfirmsthatestablishedISIwereprimarilyinterestedinLatinAmerica'sdomesticmarkets,notexports.ThisallowedthelocalexportersintheEastAsianNIEsthatpursuedexport-orientedindustrialization(EOI)togainthelion'sshareofU.S.andEuropeanmarketsfortheprofitableconsumergoodsthatareonlysuppliedviabuyer-drivenchains.
Bothbuyer-drivenandproducer-drivencommoditychainsareusefulinanalyzingandevaluatingglobalindustries.Aswithtraditionalsupply-chainperspectives,thecommoditychainsframeworkisbasedontheflowofgoodsinvolvedintheproductionanddistributionofapparelproducts.However,theglobalcommoditychainsapproachdiffersinatleastfourrespectsfromrelatedconcepts,suchasthe"pipeline"(AAMA,1984)or"valuechain"(Porter1990)approaches.Theglobalcommoditychainframework:
1)incorporatesanexplicitinternationaldimensionintotheanalysis;
2)focusesonthepowerexercisedbytheleadfirmsindifferentsegmentsofthecommoditychain,anditillustrateshowpowershiftsovertime;
3)viewsthecoordinationoftheentirechainasakeysourceofcompetitiveadvantagethatrequiresusingnetworksasastrategicasset;and
4)looksatorganizationallearningasoneofthecriticalmechanismsbywhichfirmstrytoimproveorconsolidatetheirpositionswithinthechain.
Oneofthemajorhypothesesoftheglobalcommoditychainsapproachisthatdevelopmentrequire
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