环境学概论英文版.docx
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环境学概论英文版.docx
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环境学概论英文版
Environmentalpolicyanddecisionmaking
Objectives
Afterreadingthischapter,youshouldbeableto:
.explainhowtheexecutive,judicial,andlegislativebranchesoftheU.Sgovernmentinteractinformingpolicy.
.UnderstandhowenvironmentallawsareenforcedintheUnitedStates.
.Describetheforcesthatledtochangesinenvironmentalpolicyintheunitedstatesduringthepastthreedecades.
.UnderstandthehistoryofthemajorU.Senvironmentallegislation.
.UnderstandwhysomeindividualsintheUnitedStatesareconcernedaboutenvironmentalregulations.
.Understandwhatismeantby“green”politics.
.Describethereasonsenvironmentalismisagrowingfactorininternationalrelations.
.Understandthefactorsthatcouldresultineco-conflicts.
.Understandwhyitisnotpossibletoseparatepoliticsandtheenvironment.
.Explainhowcitizenpressurecaninfluencegovernmentalenvironmentalpolicies.
ChapterOutline
NewChallengesforaNewCentury
Learningfromthepast
ThinkingabouttheFuture
DefiningtheFuture
TheDevelopmentofEnvironmentalPolicyintheUnitedStates
EnvironmentalBacklash—TheWiseUseMovement
TheChangingNatureofEnvironmentalPolicy
EnvironmentalClose-UP:
shapingU.S.
EnvironmentalPolicyastheNewCenturyBegins
EnvironmentalPolicyandRegulation
TheGreeningofGeopolitics
EnvironmentalClose-up:
ChangingtheNatureofEnvironmentalRegulation-TheSafeDrinkingWaterAct
TerrorismandtheEnvironment
InternationalEnvironmentalPolicy
GlobalPerspective:
EarthSummiton
EnvironmentandDevelopment
GlobalPerspective:
OverviewofanInternationalOrganization-TheInternationalWhalingCommission
GlobalPerspective:
Eco-LabelsEnvironmentalPolicyandtheEuropeanUnion
NewInternationalInstruments
ItAllComesBacktoYou
NewChallengesforaNewCentury
Weliveinremarkabletimes.Thisisaneraofrapidandoftenbewilderingalter-ationsintheforcesandconditionsthatshapehumanlife.Thisisevidentbothinthealterednatureofgeopoliticsinthepost-ColdWareraandinthegrowingunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenhumanbeingsandthenaturalworld.Thisrelationshipvaries,however,betweenthedevelopinganddevelopedcountriesoftheworld.Oneofthemajorchallengesoftheforeseeablefuturewillbecenteredonworldwideenvironmentalimpactasdevelopingnationsevolveeconomically.
TheendoftheColdWarhasbeenaccompaniedbytheswiftadvanceofdemocracyinplacewhereitwaspreviouslyunknownandanevenmorerepidspreadofmarket-basedeconomies.Theauthorityofcentralgovernmentsiseroding,andpowerhasbeguntoshifttolocalgovernmentsandprivateinstitutions.Insomecountries,freedomandopportunityareflourishing,whileinothers,thesechangeshaveunleashedtheviolenceofoldconflictsandnewambitions.
Internationally,trade,investment,information,andevenpeopleflowacrossborderslargelyoutsideofgovernmentalcontrol.Domestically,deregulationandtheshiftofresponsibilitiesfromfederaltostateandlocalgovernmentsarechangingtherelationshipsamonglevelsofgovernmentandbetweengovernmentandtheprivatesector.
Communicationstechnologyhasenhancedpeople,sabilitytoreceiveinformationandinfluenceeventsthataffectthem.Thishassparkedexplosivegrowthinthenumberoforganizations,associations,andnetworksformedbycitizens,businesses,andcommunitiesseekingagreatervoicefortheirinterests,Asaresult,societyoutsideofgovernment—civilsociety—isdemandingagreaterroleingovernmentaldecisions,whileatthesametimeimpatientlyseekingsolutionsoutsidegovernment,spowertodecide.
Buttechnologicalinnovationischangingmuchmorethancommunication.Itischangingthewaysinwhichwelive,work,produce,andconsume.Knowledgehasbecometheeconomy,smostimportantanddynamicresource.Ithasrapidlyimprovedefficiencyasthosewhocreateandsellgoodsandservicessubstituteinformationandinnovationforrawmaterials.Duringthepast25years,theamountofenergyandnaturalresourcestheU.S.lawsfirstrequiredindustrytocontrolpollution,theresponsewastoinstallcleanupequipment.Theshifttoaknowledge-driveneconomyhasemphasizedthepositiveconnectionamongefficiency,profits,andenvironmentalprotectionandhelpedlaunchatrendinprofitablepollutionprevention.Moreandmorepeopletodaynowunderstandthatpollutioniswaste,wasteisinefficient,andinefficiencyisexpensive.
Evenastheiraccesstoinformationandtomeansofcommunicationhasincreased,citizensofthemoredevelopednationarebecomingcynicalabout,andfrustratedwith,traditionalpoliticalarrangementsthatnolongerseemresponsivetotheirneeds.Theconfidenceofmanycitizensinthelargeinstitutionsthataffecttheirlives—suchasbusiness,government,themedia,andenvironmental,labor,andcivicorganizationsiseroding.Individualcitizenshavelostfaithintheirabilitytoinfluenceeventsandhavesurrenderedtoapathy,orworse,toanger.
SincetheendofworldwarII,theworld,seconomicoutputhasincreasedsubstantially,allowingwidespreadimprovementsinhealth,education,andopportunitybutalsocreatinggrowingdisparitiesbetweenrichandpoor.Eveninthehighlydevelopednations,thegapbetweenrichandpooriswidening.
Tomorrow,sworldwillbeshapedbytheaspirationsofamuchlargerglobalpopulation.Thenumberofpeoplelivingonearthhasdoubledinthelast50years.Growingpopulationsdemandmorefood,goods,services,andspace.Wherethereisscarcity,populationincreaseaggravatesit.Strugglingtosurviveinplacesthatcannolongersustainthem,growingpopulationsoverfish,overharvest,andovergraze.
Aswebeginthenewcentury,itisimportantthatwerecognizethateconomic,environmental,andsocialgoalsareintegrallylinkedandthatwedeveloppoliciesthatreflectthatinterrelationship.Thinkingnarrowlyaboutjobs,energy,transportation,housing,orecosystems—asiftheywerenotconnected—createsnewproblemsevenasitattemptstosolveoldones.Askingthewrongquestionsisasurewaytogetmisleadinganswersthatresultinshorttermremediesforsymptoms,insteadofcuresforlong-termproblems.
Allofthiswillrequirenewmodesofdecisionmaking,rangingfromthelocaltotheinternationallevel.Whiletrendisnotalwaysdestiny,thetrendthathasbeenevolvingoverthepastseveralyearshasbeentowardmorecollaborativeformsofdecisionmaking.Perhapssuchcollaborativestructureswillinvolvemorepeopleandabroaderrangeofinterestsinshapingandmakingpublicpolicy.Itishopedthatthiswillimprovedecisions,mitigateconflict,andbegintocounteractthecorrosivetrendsofcynicismandcivicdisengagementthatseemtobegrowing.
Morecollaborativeapproachestomakingdecisionscanbearduousandtime-consuming,andalloftheplayersmustchangetheircustomaryroles.Forgovernment,thismeansusingitspowertoconveneandfacilitate,shiftinggraduallyfromprescribingbehaviortosupportingresponsibilitybysettinggoals,creatingincentives,monitoringperformance,andprovidinginformation.
Fortheirpart,businessesneedtobuildthepracticeandskillsofdialoguewithcommunitiesandcitizens,participatingincommunitydecisionmakingandopeningtheirownvalues,strategies,andperformancetotheircommunityandthesociety.
Advocates,too,mustaccepttheburdensandconstraintsofrationaldialoguebuiltontrust,andcommunitiesmustcreateopenandinclusivedebateabouttheirfuture.
Doesallofthissoundtooidealistic?
Perhapsitis;however,withoutavisionforthefuture,wherewouldwebe?
Aswasstatedpreviously,trendisnotdestiny.Inotherwords,wearecapableofchangeregardlessofthestatusquo.Thisisperhapsnowheremoreimportantthanintheworldofenvironmentaldecisionmaking.
Learningfromthepast
Forthepastquartercentury,thebasicpatternofenvironmentalprotectionineconomicallydevelopednationshasbeentoreacttospecificcrises.Institutionshavebeenestablished,lawspassed,andregulationswritteninresponsetoproblemsthatalreadywereposingsubstantialecologicalandpublichealthrisksandcosts,orthatalreadywerecausingdeep-seatedpublicconcern.
TheUnitedStatesisnoexception.TheU.SEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)hasfocuseditsattentionalmostexclusivelyonpresentandpastproblems.Thepoliticalwilltoestablishtheagencygrewoutofaseriesofhighlypublicized,seriousenvironmentalproblems,suchasthefireontheCuyahogaRiverinOhio,smoginLosAngeles,andthenearextinctionofthebaldeagle.Duringthe1970sand1980s,Congressenactedaseriesoflawsintendedtosolvetheseproblems,andtheEPA,whichwascreatedin1970s,wasgiventheresponsibilityforenforcingmostenvironmentallaws.
Despitesuccessincorrectinganumberofexistingenvironmentalproblems,therehasbeenacontinuingpatternofnotrespondingtoenvironmentalproblemsuntiltheyposeimmediateandunambiguousrisks.Suchpolices,however,willnotadequatelyprotecttheenvironmentinthefuture.Peoplearerecognizingthattheagenciesandorganizationswhoseactivitiesaffecttheenvironmentmustbegintoanticipatefutureenvironmentalproblemsandthentakestepstoavoidthem.Oneofthemostimportantlessonslearnedduringthepastquartercenturyofenvironmentalhistoryisthatthefailuretothinkaboutthefutureenvironmentalconsequencesofprospectivesocial,economic,andtechnologicalchangesmayimposesubstantialandavoidableeconomicandenvironmentalcostsonfuturegenerations.
Thinkingaboutthefuture
Thinkingaboutthefutureismoreimportanttodaythaneverbefore,becausetheacce
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