advance and move forward the field in elastomer Ability to analyze and interpret data and draw well.docx
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advanceandmoveforwardthefieldinelastomerAbilitytoanalyzeandinterpretdataanddrawwell
1
PartII:
Policyinstrumentsforsustainableroadtransport ReviewArticle
ResearchinTransportationEconomics,Volume28,Issue1,2010,Pages46-91
GeorginaSantos,HannahBehrendt,AlexanderTeytelboym
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AbstractAbstract|Figures/TablesFigures/Tables|ReferencesReferences
Abstract
Withoutquestioningthefactthattoachieveefficiencyemittersshouldpayforthetruecostsoftheiractions(acoreprincipleofeconomicpoliciessuchaspollutiontaxes),wefindsufficientevidenceintheliteraturetodemonstratethatmanyotherpolicyinstrumentscanbeusedincombinationwithtaxesandpermitstoensurethatthetransportneedsofthepresentgenerationcanbemetwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeetanyneedsoftheirown.
Thepoliciesandpolicyaspectsconsideredinthispaperbroadlyfallintothreecategories:
physicalpolicies,softpolicies,andknowledgepolicies.Allthreeaimtobringaboutchangesinconsumers’andfirms’behaviour,butindifferentways.Thefirstcategoryincludespolicieswithaphysicalinfrastructureelement:
publictransport,landuse,walkingandcycling,roadconstruction,andfreighttransport.Wealsoconsidertheparticularchallengesformobilityindevelopingcountries,andhowthesemaybeaddressed.Softpolicies,ontheotherhand,arenon-tangibleaimingtobringaboutbehaviouralchangebyinformingactorsabouttheconsequencesoftheirtransportchoices,andpotentiallypersuadingthemtochangetheirbehaviour.Thesemeasuresincludecarsharingandcarpooling,teleworkingandteleshopping,eco-driving,aswellasgeneralinformationandadvertisingcampaigns.Finally,knowledgepoliciesemphasisetheimportantroleofinvestmentinresearchanddevelopmentforasustainablemodelofmobilityforthefuture.
Themainfindingscanbesummarisedasfollows.
Physicalpolicies
Anincreaseintheuseofpublictransport,combinedwithadecreaseintheuseofprivatecars,canreducetrafficcongestionand,moreimportantly,carbondioxide(CO2)emissions,aspublictransportgenerallycauseslowerCO2emissionsperpassengerkilometrethanprivatecars.Publictransportfaresaresubsidisedinmostplaces,whichcanbejustifiedbyeconomiesofscaleandbythefactthatpublictransportcanreducetotalroadtransportexternalities.London,Singapore,PortlandandCuritibaareallexamplesofgoodpracticeatgovernmentlevel,havingachievedreliable,frequentandintegratedpublictransport.
Policiestoincreasepublictransportusemustbepartofanintegratedpolicy.Integratedpolicyreferstointegrationacrossdifferentmodesoftransport,differentgovernmentobjectives(suchastheeconomy,healthandtheenvironment),consideringtheneedsofdifferentsocialgroups,andcoordinatingactionbetweentherelevantgovernmentinstitutions.Thereisevidencethatalackofcoordinationcanjeopardisetheachievementofpolicyobjectives.
Asustainablemodelfortransportpolicyalsorequiresintegrationwithland-usepolicies.Thesemaybesomewhatlimitedwithintheboundsofexistingcities,butascitiesgrowandnewcitiesarebuilt,urbanplannersmustputmoreemphasisonlanduseforsustainabletransportinordertoreducecongestionandCO2emissions.Sustainableland-usepolicycandirecturbandevelopmenttowardsaformthatallowspublictransportaswellaswalkingandcyclingtobeatthecoreofurbanmobility.
Walkingandcycling,whichimprovegeneralhealthandproducenotailpipeemissions,constituteanexcellentalternativetomotorisedtransportonshort-distancetripswithintownsandcities.Thepolicieswhichcanincentivisewalkingandcyclingincludecrimereductiontomakestreetssafer,well-maintainedandcleanpavements,attractivestreetfurniture,safecrossingswithshorterwaitingtimes,dedicatedcyclepaths,showersinoffices,andlowerspeedlimits,tonamebutafew.
Roadconstructionandexpansionusedtobeseenasoneofthemostpromisingwaystoreducetrafficcongestion.However,inthemid-1990s,theissuewasreassessedanditwasfoundthatbuildingandexpandingroads,increased,ratherthandecreased,congestion,andultimatelyinducedhigherlevelsoftraveldemand.Thereasonforthisisthattheextracapacityreducesthegeneralcostoftravellingandthelessexpensivethetravel,themoreitwillbedemanded.Regardingfreightmodalshift,roadtransportismuchmorepollutingthanrailpertonne-kmofgoodstransportedandthereforeashifttowardsgreateruseofrailinfreighttransportisdesirable.Inadequateinfrastructureisthemainobstaclepreventingthismodalshifttakingplace.
Developingcountriesfacegreatmobilitychallenges:
ruralareasareoftenextremelypoorlyconnectedtotransportinfrastructure,suchthat,incontrasttothesituationindevelopedcountries,thebenefitsofroadconstructioncanstronglyoutweighthetotalcosts(includingenvironmentalones).Themainchallenge,however,istodevelopasolutiontotheproblemsarisingfromthecombinationofurbanisationandmotorisation.Integrationoftransportandland-usepolicywillbekeytorisingtothischallenge.
Softpolicies
CarsharingandcarclubscanalsopotentiallyreduceCO2emissions,althoughtheaggregatereductionincongestionandemissionshasnotbeenmeasuredwithanadequatedegreeofprecisionintheliterature.TeleworkingandteleshoppingcanpotentiallyreducecongestionandalsoCO2emissions.However,theevidenceforthisreductionisrathermixed,asitisunclearwhetherthesemeasuresleadtooverallreductionsinroadtransport.
Eco-drivingcampaignsaimtoinformandeducatedriversinordertoinducethemtodriveinafuel-efficientandthusenvironmentallyfriendlyway.Thereseemstobesomeconsensusintheliteraturethateco-drivingcouldleadtoreductionsinCO2emissionsofaround10percent.
Informationandeducationpolicieshaveoftenbeenadvocatedasinstrumentswhichmayaffectbehaviouralchange.Wefindinthispaperthatthesetypesofmeasuresarenecessary,butnotsufficientforbehaviouralchange.Advertisingandmarketingmaygoalongwayinchangingpeoples’behaviour.InCalifornia,forexample,Kahn(2007)findsthe“Prius”effect:
theToyotaPriusispreferredbyconsumersrelativetoothersimilarlygreenvehicles,probablyduetoextensivemarketingandcelebrityendorsements.Familylifechangesarealsofoundtotriggerchangesinbehaviour([Goodwin,1989]and[Goodwin,2008]).Peoplewhoselivesarebeingchangedbysomeimportantdevelopment(birthofachild,retirement,etc)tendtorespondmoretochangesintherelativeattractivenessofdifferenttransportmodes.Advertisingcampaignspromotingamodalshifttowardspublictransport,forinstance,maythusbemoresuccessfuliftargetedatpeopleintheprocessofimportantlifetransitions.
Knowledgepolicies
ResearchandDevelopmentiscrucialfordevelopingsustainableandlow-carbontransportforthefuture,anditisessentialthatgovernmentsprovideincentivestoundertakeR&D,sothatnewlow-carbontechnologiesinthetransportsectorcanbedemonstratedandappliedatalargescale.
Finally,weconsidertheissueofpolicycombinationandintegration.Thereisevidencethatthecombinationandintegrationofpoliciescanleadtopositiveside-effectsandsynergies.Policyintegrationiscrucialinordertorisetothechallengeswefaceinmovingtowardsasustainablemobilitymodel.Weconcludethatclassicaleconomicpoliciesmaybesuccessfullycombinedwithanumberofpolicymeasuresdiscussedinthispaperinordertoachievesustainabilityintransport.
ArticleOutline
Nomenclature
1.Sustainabletransportpolicy
1.1.Sustainabletransportpolicyobjectives
2.Publictransportinthecontextofanintegratedtransportpolicy
2.1.Integration
2.1.1.Physicalintegrationofdifferentmodesoftransport
2.1.1.1.Park-and-ride
2.1.2.Integrationwitheconomic,environmentalandhealthpolicies
2.1.2.1.FocusontheroleofpublictransportinreducingCO2emissions
2.1.3.Achievingsocialinclusionthroughintegratedtransportpolicy
2.1.4.Institutionalandadministrativeintegration
2.2.Subsidiestopublictransport
2.3.Thevirtuouscirclebetweencongestionchargingandpublictransport
2.4.Examplesofsuccessfulimplementation
2.4.1.London
2.4.2.Singapore
2.4.3.Portland
2.4.4.Curitiba
2.5.Concludingremarks
3.Land-usepolicies
3.1.Land-usepoliciesinexistingcities
3.1.1.Changingthewaypeopletravel
3.1.2.Carparking
3.1.3.Planningregulations
3.1.4.Accessibility
3.1.5.Mixed-usedevelopmentandsprawlcontainment
3.2.Land-usepoliciesfornewdevelopments
3.2.1.Thedebateaboutpolycentricvs.monocentriccitydesign
3.2.2.Dimensionsofurbandesignandtransportpolicy
3.3.Examplesofcitieswithsuccessfulsustainableland-usepolicies
3.3.1.Copenhagen
3.3.2.HongKong
3.3.3.Freiburg
3.4.Concludingremarks
4.Incentivestowalkingandcycling
4.1.Walkingandcyclingasoptionsforshort-distancetrips
4.1.1.Walking
4.1.2.Cycling
4.1.3.Walkingandcycling
4.2.Healthbenefits
4.3.Benefitstotheenvironment
4.4.Pedestrians’andcyclists’safety
4.4.1.Safetyinnumbers
4.4.2.Helmetuseandcycling
4.5.Economicbenefitsofwalkingandcycling
4.6.Examplesofsuccessfulimplementation
4.6.1.TheNetherlands
4.6.2.DenmarkandGermany
4.6.3.Bogotá
4.6.4.OYBikeinLondon,VelibinParisandBicinginBarcelona
4.7.Concludingremarks
5.Roadconstruction
5.1.Inducedtraffic
5.1.1.Evidence
5.2.Investmentinroad
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