2 PHONETICS.docx
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2 PHONETICS.docx
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2PHONETICS
2.PHONETICS
2.1Scopeofphonetics
PHONETICSisthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.
SPEECHSOUNDSmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,threebranchesofphonetics,articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandacousticphonetics.
2.1.1Articulatoryphonetics
Speechsoundsmaybestudiedfromthepointofviewofthespeaker,thatis,wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.ThisaspectofphoneticsiscalledARTICULATORYPHONETICS.
2.1.2Auditoryphonetics
Ameaningfulactofspeechhasanotherend–thereceptionend.Thesoundsproducedbythespeakerwillbereceivedbythehearer.Speechsoundsthereforemayalsobestudiedfromthehearer’spointofview.Wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.ThisareaofresearchisknownasAUDITORYPHONETICS.
2.1.3Acousticphonetics
TomakeaspeechsoundvisiblesothatwecanmeasureitscomponentsobjectivelywemustthengointothedomainofACOUSTICPHONETICS,whichstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Instruments,suchastheoscillographandthesoundspectrograph,havebeenusedtotranslateasoundintoavisualrepresentationofitscomponentsintermsoffrequencyandintensity.Thesoundspectrographwill,inaddition,showtheformantsofvowels.
2.2TheVocalOrgans
Thevocalorgans(seeFig.1),orthespeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.
2.2.1Theinitiatoroftheair-stream
Thefirstrequisitefortheproductionofaspeechsoundisthatthereisanair-stream.
2.2.2Thevocalcords
Theair-streamprovidedbythelungshastoundergoanuntoerofmodificationstoacquirethequalityofaspeechsound.Thefirstpointwhereitispossibletomodifytheair-streamisatthetopofthewindpipe,whichendsinabonystructurecalledtheLARYNX.
InsidethelarynxaretheVOCALCORDS.
Theyareinfacttwofoldsofmembrane(hencealsothenamevocalfolds),whicharefixedtogetheratthefrontbuthorizontallymoveableattheback.
ThespacebetweenthevocalcordsistermedtheGLOTTIS.
Inspeechthevocalcordshavethreemainfunctions.
(1)Thevocalcordsmaybeclosedtightlysothattheairstreamfromthelungsisblockedandtheairpressurebehindthembuildsup.ThisphenomenoniscalledtheGLOTTALSTOPandsymbolizedas[?
].Thusthesoundisinaudible,butithasitseffectonsurroundingsegments.
InEnglish,itoftenoccursinitiallytopronounceawordlike‘idiot’whichbeginswithavowel.
(2)Ifthevocalcordsarebroughttogethertotheextentthatthereisonlyanarrowpassagebetweenthem,thepressureoftheairstreamwillsettheminvibration.
Theresultisasound.
Thesoundhasaregularwaveformandthenumberofvibrationsinasecondisfixed,sothatwecanperceiveitspitch.Inphonetics,thissoundiscalledVOICE,andsoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledVOICEDSOUNDS.ConsonantslikeEnglish[b,m,z]arevoiced.Vowelsareusuallyvoiced,too.
ThePITCHofasounddependsontherateofvibrationofthevocalcords,whichinturnisdeterminedbythelengthofthevocalcords.
Whenthevocalcordsarenotvibratingatthetimeofitsproduction,theresultantsoundiscalledaVOICELESSSOUND.Consonantslike[f,s,p]arevoicelesssounds.
2.2.3Theresonatingcavities
Inthehumanspeechmechanism,therearethreeresonatingcavities:
thePHARYNS,theNASALCAVITYandtheORALCAVITY.
2.2.3.1Thepharynx
ThePHARYNXstretchesfromthetopofthelarynxuptothebackofthenasalcavityandservesasthecontainerofavoiumeofairwhichcanbesetintovibrationinharmonywithvibrationscomingfromthevocalcords.
2.2.3.2Thenasalcavity
TheNASALCAVITYisoffixeddimensionsandshape,anditscontributiontospeechisentirelyamatterofresonance.
2.2.3.3Theoralcavity
TheORALCAVITYisbyfarthemostimportantofthethreecavities;itisherethatmostofthedistinctionsofarticulatespeecharefashioned.
Theoralcavityisboundedatthetopbyadome–shapedstructure–thePALATE.Thefrontpartofthepalateisbonyandfixed,hencethetermHARDPALATE;itsbackpart,theSPFTPALATE,ismuscularandmoveable.ThesoftfleshytipofthesoftpalatehangingdownatthebackofthemouthiscalledtheUVULA.
Onthehardpalatejustbehindtheteethonecanfeelaprominentridge.Thiscoverstherootsoftheteethandiscalledtheteethridgeor,morelearnedly,theALVEOLARRIDGE.Movingfurtheroutwards,wecometotheteeth,andtheoutmostarethelipsformingthefrontexitoftheoralcavity.
Atthebottomoftheoralcavityliesacomplexmuscularstructure–theTONGUE.
Whenthetongueisatrest,withitstiplyingbehindthelowerteeth,thepartwhichliesoppositethehardpalateiscalledtheFRONTandthatwhichfacesthesoftpalateiscalledtheBACK.ThetaperingsectionfacingtheteethridgeiscalledtheBLADEanditsextremitytheTIP.
ThesystemofvocalorgansisalsotermedtheVOCALTRACT.Thepartwhichisabovethelarynxiscalledthesupraglottaltractandthepartbelowthelarynxthesubglottaltract.ThesupraglottalisfurtherdividedintotheORALTRACTandtheNASALTRACT,thedividinglinebeingthesoftpalateinitsraisedposition.ThevocalorgansintheoraltractaretechnicallyknownasARTICULATORS,thosewhicharemoveableareactivearticulatorsandthosenotmoveablearepassivearticulators.
2.3Consonants
Speechsoundsmaybeclassifiedintotwomajortypesintermsoftheirarticulatorycharacteristics.ThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledCONSONANTS.Thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledVOWELS.
2.3.1Placesofarticulation
(1)BILABIAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetwolips,suchasintheproductionof[p,b,m]oftheEnglishwords“pie,buy,my”.
(2)LABIODENTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth,suchasintheproductionof[f,v]oftheEnglishwords“fie,vie”.
(3)DENTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth,suchasintheproductionof[]oftheEnglishwords“thigh,thy”.
(4)ALVEOLAR---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge,suchasintheproductionof[t,d,1,n,s,z]oftheEnglishwords“tie,die,lie,nigh,sigh,zyme”.
(5)RETROFLEX---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbytheundersideofthetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.
Thetipofthetonguecurledupandback.InthestandardpronunciationofSouthernBritishEnglish,knownasRECEIVEDPRONUNCIATION(RP),retroflexsoundsarenotusuallyused.
Aretroflexr-soundistypicalofmanyAmericanspeakers.
(6)PALATO-ALVEOLAR---theobstructionoftheair-streamiscausedbythetonguebladeandthebackofthealveolarridge,suchasintheproductionof[∫,3]oftheEnglishword“shy”andtheFrenchword“genre”.
(7)PALATAL---thefrontofthetongueisraisedtowardsthehardpalatetoobstructtheair-stream,suchasintheproductionof[j]oftheEnglishwords“yes,you”.
(8)VELAR---thebackofthetongueisraisedsothatittouchesthesoftpalatetoobstructtheair-stream,suchasintheproductionof[k,g,η]oftheEnglishwords“sick,zig,sing”.
(9)UVULAR---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythebackofthetongueandtheuvular,suchasintheproductionof[R]or[R]oftheFrenchwords“rouge,rose”.
(10)GLOTTAL---theobstructionoftheairstreamiscausedbythevocalcords,suchasintheproductionof[?
],theglottalstopmentionedbefore.
Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthatofthebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermedLABIAL-VELAR.
2.3.2Mannersofarticulation
(1)PLOSIVE---intheproductionofaplosive,theair-streamisobstructedcompletelvbothintheoralandnasaltracts,sothatwhentheclosureintheoraltractissuddenlyreleased,thecompressedairrushesoutandproducesanexplosivesound.Accordingtotheplaceoftheoralclosure,plosivesmaybebilabial[p,b],alveolar[t,d],velar[k,g],glottal[?
],etcAplosivecanalsobecalledanORALSTOP.
(2)NASAL---intheproductionofanasal,theair-streamiscompletelyobstructedintheoraltractbutnotinthenasaltract,sothattheairpassesthroughthenosefreely.
e.g.bilabial[m],alveolar[n],velar[ŋ],etc.AnasalcanalsobecalledaNASALSTOP.
(3)TRILL---intheproductionofatrilltheobstructionoftheair-streamiscausedbyairpressurewhenaflexibleorgantouchesandleavesafirmersurfaceinveryquickmovementsrepeatedly.
(4)LATERAL---intheproductionofalateraltheair-streamisobstructedalongthecentreoftheoraltract,butoneorbothsidesofthetongueareawayfromtheroofofthemouth,sothattheaircangothroughthemouthlaterally.
Forinstance,[1]oftheEnglishwords“lie,low”isnormallyproducedwithoutaudible
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