英语语言学复习要点.docx
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英语语言学复习要点.docx
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英语语言学复习要点
Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics
1.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Togivethebarestdefinitionlanguageisameansofverbalcommunication.Itisinstrumentalsocialandconventional.
Linguisticsisusuallydefinedasthescienceoflanguageoralternativelyasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itconcernswiththesystematicstudyoflanguageoradisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatestheoriesastohowlanguageworks.
2.Designfeaturesreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacementetc.
ArbitrarinessreferstoformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningLanguageisarbitrary.Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsoundsevenwithonomatopoeicwords.
Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructure.Theunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.
☺thelowerorthebasiclevel----thesoundunitsorphonemeswhicharemeaningless,butcanbegroupedandregroupedintowords.
☺thehigherlevel----morphemesandwordswhicharemeaningful
CreativityreferstoWordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthingsandcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusagebefore.
Displacementreferstothefactthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresentrealorimaginedmattersinthepastpresentorfutureorinfarawayplaces.Itmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjectseventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentintimeandspaceatthemomentofcommunication
3.Jakobson’sclassificationoffunctionsoflanguage.
Jakobson:
InhisarticleLinguisticsandPoetics(1960)definedsixprimaryfactorsofanyspeechevent:
speaker,addressee,context,message,code,contact.
1).Referentialfunction所指功能2).Poeticfunction诗学功能3).Emotivefunction感情功能
4).Conativefunction意动功能5).Phaticfunction交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能
HuZhuanglin’classificationoffunctionsoflanguageandusesomeexamplestoillustratethem.
1).Informativefunction信息功能2).Interpersonalfunction人际功能3).Performativefunction施为功能4).Emotivefunction感情功能5).Phaticcommunion交感性谈话6).Recreationalfunction娱乐性功能7).Metalingualfunction元语言功能
4.WhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleandChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?
AccordingtoSaussure,
(1)Langueisabstract,paroleisspecifictothespeakingsituation;
(2)Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;(3)Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.
AccordingtoN.Chomsky,Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities;Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence;Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.
Chapter2SpeechSounds
1.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandreceived.Itisconcernedwiththeactualphysicalarticulation,transmissionandperceptionofspeechsounds.
Phonologyisessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsounds.Itisconcernedwiththeabstractandmentalaspectofthesoundsinlanguage.
Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication
1.
Lips
2.Teeth
3.Teethridge(alveolar)齿龈
4.Hardpalate硬腭
5.Softpalate(velum)软腭
6.Uvula小舌
7.Tipoftongue
8.Bladeoftongue舌面
9.Backoftongue
10.Vocalcords声带
11.Pharyngealcavity咽腔
12.Nasalcavity鼻腔
2.Phone(音素):
thesmallestperceptiblediscreetsegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech.(inthemouth)
Phoneme(音位):
Asoundwhichiscapableofdistinguishingonewordoroneshapeofawordfromanotherinagivenlanguageisaphoneme.(inthemind)
allophone(音位变体):
phonicvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophoneofthesamephoneme.
//=phoneme[]=phone{}=setofallophones
IPA:
theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.
Minimalpairs最小对立体
Threerequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:
1)differentinmeaning;2)onlyonephonemedifferent;
3)thedifferentphonemesoccurinthesamephoneticenvironment.
e.g.aminimalpair:
pat-fat;lit-lip;phone-tone
minimalset:
pat,mat,bat,fat,cat,hat,etc
3.complementarydistribution互补分布
Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.
Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theymightformacontrast;e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit];
Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydon’tdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontext
Suprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征
—featuresthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegment,suchasstress(重音),length(音程),rhythm(节奏),tone(音调),intonation(语调)及juncture(音渡).
Chapter3Lexicon/Morphology
1.Word
1.1Threesensesof“word”
(1)Aphysicallydefinableunit:
aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopauseorblank.
(2)Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm.
(3)Agrammaticalunit
1.2Identificationofwords
Somefactorscanhelpusidentifywords:
(1)Stability
(2)Relativeuninterruptibility
(3)Aminimumfreeform
1.3Theclassificationofword
Wordscanbeclassifiedintermsof:
(1)Variablevs.invariablewords(可变词/不可变词)
(2)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords(语法词/词汇词)
(3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords(封闭词/开放词)
(4)wordclass(词类)
(1)Variablevs.invariablewords(可变词/不可变词)
theformerreferstowordshavinginflectivechanges(屈折变化)whilethelatterreferstowordshavingnosuchendings.
Variablewords:
follow;follows;following;followed
Invariablewords:
since;when;seldom;through;hello
(2)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords(functionwordsandcontentwords.语法词/词汇词)
Theformerreferstothosewordsexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions(连词),prepositions(介词),articles(冠词),andpronouns(代词);
thelatterreferstowordshavinglexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionetc.suchasn.,v.,adj.,andadv..
(3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords(封闭词/开放词)
theformerreferstowordswhosemembershipisfixedorlimited;e.g.pron.,prep.,conj.,article.
thelatterofwhichthemembershipisinfiniteorunlimited.e.g.:
n.,v.,adj.,adv.
(4)wordclass(词类)
Thetraditionallyrecognizedwordclassesare:
noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Morewordclasseshavebeenintroducedintogrammar:
particles小品词/语助词(goby,lookfor,comeup);
auxiliaries助词(can,be,will);
pro-form替代词(do,so);
determiners前置词/限定词(all,every,few,plentyof,this).
2.Theformationofword
2.1Morphology形态学
Definition:
Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
Thetwofields(p64)
Inflectionalmorphology:
thestudyofinflections
Derivationalmorphology:
thestudyofword-formation
3.Lexicalchange
3.1Lexicalchangeproper(词本身的变化)
Invention新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词
back-formation逆构词analogicalcreation类比造词Borrowing借词、外来词
definition:
1)Morphology:
Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
2)Terminology术语解释
Morpheme:
Thesmallestunitofmeaning,whichcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithout
destroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.
Freemorphemes:
morphemeswhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves.
Boundmorphemes:
morphemeswhichcannotbeusedbythemselves,butmustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwords
Inflectionalmorpheme:
akindofboundmorphemeswhichmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.
Derivationalmorpheme:
akindofboundmorphemes,addedtoexistingformstocreatenewwords.Therearethreekindsaccordingtoposition:
prefix,suffixandinfix.
Chapter4SyntaxFromWordtoText
Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.
EndocentricConstructions:
isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinablecentreorhead.
ExocentricConstructions:
referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup
Category:
referstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:
Categoriesofthenoun:
number,gender,caseandcountability
Categoriesoftheverb:
tense,aspect,voice
threekindsofsyntacticrelations:
relationsofposition 位置关系
Positionalrelation,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.
relationsofsubstitutability可替代性关系
TheRelationofSubstitutabilityreferstoclassesorsetsof
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