The 18 british history2.docx
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The 18 british history2.docx
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The18britishhistory2
The18th-centuryBritishHistory
(PartTwo)
Zhengboren
Contents
HistoricalReview
⏹1770:
CaptainJamesCookundertookhisfirstvoyagetotheSouthPacificandexploredthetwoislandsofNewZealandandtheeasterncoastofAustralia,whichheclaimedforBritainandnamedNewSouthWales;January17,1773hebecamethefirstpersontocrosstheAntarcticCircleinrecordedhistory
⏹1775-1783:
AmericanRevolution
⏹1789:
FrenchRevolution
⏹HoratioNelson(1758-1805):
1789,inthebattlesoftheNilehedefeatedNapoleon'snavy/IntheBattleofTrafalgar,onOctober21,1805,NelsonoverwhelminglydefeatedthecombinedFrenchandSpanishfleets
⏹1807:
Abolitionoftheslavetrade,vigorouslysupportedbyCharlesJamesFox,waspassed.
⏹1815:
inthebattleofWaterlooDukeofWellingtondefeatedNapoleon’sarmy
JamesCook
vBritishexplorerandnavigatorCaptainJamesCooksailedaroundtheworldtwice,madethreevoyagestothePacificOcean,andbecamethefirstEuropeantovisitHawaii.CooksailedtoTahiti,NewZealand,Australia,VancouverIsland,andtheHawaiianIslands,wherehewaskilledinafightwithislanders.
WorksofCaptainJamesCook
A.IndustrializationandProgress
vEarlyStagesofIndustrialization
vThe development of industryinBritainwasalongandgradualprocess.IndustrializationtookplaceearlierandmorerapidlyinBritainthananywhereelsebecauseexistingconditionswerefavorableinEngland.
vAsystemofinternalwaterwaysandcanalsandtheabsenceofphysicalbarrierstotrademadethetransportofgoodslessdifficultthaninothernations.
vCoalfieldsandthickforests,locatedconvenientlyclosetolargedepositsofmetalores,providedfueltopowerthefurnacesthatproducediron.
vThrivingcommercialbanksprovidedfinancingforinvestmentsinindustrialplantsandmachinery.
vAdvances in agriculturealsocontributedtotheindustrializationprocess.Beginninginthemid-17thcentury,Englandunderwentaprocessofagriculturalimprovementthatenabledfewerfarmerstofeedmorepeoplewhilecultivatingthesameamountofland.
vBetween1750and1800,grainyieldsrose50percent;thisincreasesustainedthesteadilyrisingpopulation,whichinEnglandgrewfrom5.5millionin1750toaround9millionin1801,toover16millionby1851.
vAgriculturalimprovementnotonlyproducedmorefoodatcheaperprices,italsoallowedfarmstoproducemorefoodwithfewerworkers.Workerswhocouldnolongerfindworkonfarmsmigratedtothetownsinsearchofemployment.Asaresult,therewasadramaticshiftinpopulationduringthe19thcenturyfromtheagriculturalsoutheasttotheMidlandsandthenorth,whereindustrywaslocated.
The first phase of industrialization
vcottonclothing
vThe first phase of industrializationcenteredontheproductionofcottonclothing.Atthebeginningofthe18thcenturyBritainstillexportedfinishedcottonclothfromIndia.Soondomesticmanufacturingreversedthisflow,andEnglandbecametheworld’sprimarysupplierofcottoncloth.
vTwodevelopmentsmadethispossible:
theavailabilityofcheaprawcottonfromEgyptandAmerica,andtheinventionofnewmachinesthatenabledworkerstospinmorethreadandweavemorecloth.
vOne of these new machineswasknownasthespinningjenny.Itusedfootpedalstocontrolthespinningofmultiplethreads.Thisdeviceallowedaworkertospin200timesasmuchthreadin1815ascouldbespun50yearsearlier.Anothermechanicaldevice,theflyingshuttle,quicklyandautomaticallypassedthreadthroughaloom,thedeviceonwhichclothiswoven.Thisflyingshuttleenabledonepersontooperatealoom,whereaspreviouslyithadtakenanentireteamofworkers.
thespinningjenny
vJohnKay(1704-1764)developedtheflyingshuttle(1733)fortextilemanufacture./JamesHargreaves(1720-1778)inventedthespinningjennyin1764,madepossibletheautomaticproductionofcottonthread
vThe operation of machinerybecamemoreefficientandprofitablewiththeadditionofwaterpowerandlatertheperfectionoftherotarysteamenginebyScottishinventorJamesWatt.Cottonproductionsoared.By1815Britainwasexporting100timestheamountofcottonithadexportedhalfacenturyearlier.Cottonbecameitsmostimportantproduct.
vWater-PoweredMill
vEarlymanufacturingemployedwater-poweredmachinery.Waterturnedthepaddlesofawheel,whichinturnmovedgrindingstonesorothermechanicaldevices.Modernwaterwheels,calledwaterturbines,drivegeneratorsthatproduceelectricity.
v1765:
ScottishinventorJamesWatt,inventionofSteamerinBirmingham/thebeginningofIndustrialRevolution
vWith the introductionofmachinery,factoriesbecamethesiteoforganizedproductionoftextiles,replacingsmall-scalemanufactureinthehome.Atfirstmostfactorieswerecomparativelysmall,employingfewerthan100workers.Theywereefficientandinitiallyallowedfamiliestoremaintogether,husbandsweaving,wivesspinning,andchildrenfetchingandcarrying.Ultimately,however,factoriesdisruptedfamilylife.Womenandchildreneasilyoperatedthepower-drivenmachines,andtheyworkedthesame12-hourdaysasmen.Sincefactoryownerscouldpaywomenandchildrenlowerwages,menweredrivenoutoftheindustry.Thecraftofhandloomweavingdisappearedamidstgreathardship.Anoccupationthatemployedabout250,000menin1820sustainedfewerthan50,000by1850.
vIn some communities, displacedworkersattackedfactoriesandfactoryowners.Inothers,riotersknownasLudditesattackedthemachinesthemselves.Ludditesattemptedtodefendtheircommunitiesandtheirwayoflife,buttheywereunabletostopthedevelopmentofnewfactories.Factoryownersgrewrichbyproducingcheap,durablecottonswiththenewmachines.
SirRichardArkwright
vIn1769BritishinventorRichardArkwrightpatentedhisspinningframe,whichspuncottonfiberintothread.ArkwrightestablishedhugecottonmillsthatbecamethemodelsforthefactorysystemoftheIndustrialRevolution.
IronandRailroads
vIron was the miracle productofindustrialization.Engineersusedittobuildthemachinesthatpoweredproductionandultimatelytherailsandenginesthatpowereddistribution.IronhadlongbeenrefinedinEnglandinfurnacesthatusedcharcoalasfuel.Thisprocess,knownassmelting,involvedheatingironoretohightemperaturestoremovemostoftheimpurities.However,charcoalleftsomeimpuritiesintheiron,whichmadeitdifficulttocasttheironintobars.
vAbrahamDarby,anEnglishironmanufacturer,discoveredthatsmeltingwithcoke,apurifiedformofcoal,madepossibletheproductionofabetterproduct.
vNewlydevelopedtechniquesallowedtheirontobeheatedandstirredingreatvatsuntilimpuritieshadburnedoff.Factoryworkersthenfedthecoolingironthroughrollingmachinesthatformeditintobars.By1850Englishmanufacturerswereproducingmorethanhalfoftheworld’siron.
vThe most important useofthisenormousoutputofironwasinbuildingrailroads.
vTherailroadsdevelopedasaresultofthetechnologicaladvancesmadeduringtheIndustrialRevolution.Theironfactoriesproducedhigh-gradematerialsuitableforconstructingtrainenginesandtracks.Skilledironworkersprovidedmachinepartsofexactsizes.
vInventorsputWatt’ssteamenginetouse,firsttopumpwaterfrommines,thentodrivepistonsupanddown,andfinallytogeneratetherotarymotionthatpropelledthewheelsoftrains.
vSystems of rails and carriageshadlongexistedtomovecoalfromtheminestothebargesonwhichitwasshipped.Humansorhorsespulledthesecarriages.After1800inventorsbeganexperimentingwithWatt’ssteamengineasameansofpoweringcarriages.
vIn1829engineerandinventorGeorgeStephensoncreatedanenginethatcouldpullthreetimesitsweightandoutrunahorse.Thefollowingyearthefirstimportantrailwayopened,carryingcoalandbulkgoodsbetweenManchesterandLiverpool.Itsooncarriedmorepeoplethanproducts.Passengertravelbyrailwasfaster,cheaper,andmorecomfortablethantravelbycoach.Theintroductionoftherailroadchangedforeverconceptsofspeedanddistancethatwerecenturiesold.Hundredsofindependentrailwaycompaniessprangup.Theyinvestedmillionsofpoundstoemployhundredsofthousandsoflaborerstolaythousandsofmilesofirontrack.AllrailroadlinesultimatelyconnectedtoLondon,thecommercialcenterofthenation.
vBritishengineerRichardTrevithickpioneeredtheuseofsteampowerforlocomotioninthe1790sand1800s.In1804heconstructedthefirstpracticalsteamlocomotiveoperatingonarailwayanddemonstrateditsuseforhaulinglargeloads.
vGeorgeStephenson(1781-1848),Britishinventorandengineer,whobuiltthefirstpracticalrailroadlocomotive/In1829hedesignedalocomotiveknownastheRocket,whichhauledbothfreightandpassengersatagreaterspeedthanhadanylocomotiveconstructeduptothattime.ThesuccessoftheRocketgreatlystimulatedthesubsequentconstructionoflocomotivesandthelayingofrailroadlines.
TheImpactofIndustrialization
vIndustrialization transformednearlyeveryaspectofBritishlife.GlasgowcametorivalEdinburghasacenterofwealthinScotland.Ireland,whichhadgrownfasterthanScotlandthroughoutthe18thcentury,failedtoindustrializeandremainedlargelyagricultural,withdireconsequences.FaminedevastatedIrelandin1845afterafungusdestroyedthepotatocrop,whichhadbecomeastapleoftheIrishdiet.
vIn 1851, for the firsttime,manufacturingemployedmoreworkersthanagriculture.Thegrowthofindustrialcitieswasstaggering.Whilethepopulationasawholegrewby
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