theory 4Deconstruction.docx
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theory 4Deconstruction.docx
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theory4Deconstruction
Deconstruction
Ofallthetheoriesoutlinedinthisguide,Deconstructionposesthemostproblemsfortheuninitiatedreader.ThetranslationsfromtheFrenchare,again,difficultandtheideasdifficulttograsp.WewillthereforeprovideadetailedanalysisofthebasictheoriesandcarryoutanewreadingofoneofthekeyessaysofDeconstructivethought.Deconstructionisapost-structuralistTheory,basedlargelybutnotexclusivelyonthewritingsoftheParis-basedJacquesDerrida.ItisinthefirstinstanceaphilosophicalTheoryandaTheorydirectedtowardsthe(re-)readingofphilosophicalwritings.Itsimpactonliterature,mediatedinNorthAmericalargelythroughtheinfluencesoftheoristsatYaleUniversity,isbasedinpartonthefactthatdeconstructionseesallwritingasacomplexhistorical,culturalprocessrootedintherelationsoftextstoeachotherandintheinstitutionsandconventionsofwriting,inpartonthesophisticationandintensityofitssensethathumanknowledgeisnotascontrollableorascogentasWesternthoughtwouldhaveitandthatlanguageoperatesinsubtleandoftencontradictoryways,sothatcertaintywillalwayseludeus.
Reality
ItisnecessarytounderstandDeconstructiveideasonthenatureofreality.Realityasweunderstanditisconstructedofcertaindeepstructuralprinciplesororganizationswhichmaybeconfigureddifferentlyonthelevelofexperiencedlife,aswebothoperateandinterpretthemdifferently.Language,forinstance,iscomposedofbasicresources(langue)fromwhichindividualinstancesofitsusearedrawn(parole);culturesareformedthroughbasicrelationsofeconomicproduction(theMarxistconceptionofthe'base'),butthesemayappeardifferentlyascultures(economies,intheeconomicandmoregeneralsense)configuretheirideasandarrangements(the'superstructure').Theideaisthattherearebasicstructureswhichareoperationalisedaccordingtocertaintransformativerulesinrelationtotheparticularsofspecificsituations.
Thereisnounmediatedknowledgeof'reality':
knowledgeissymbolic;whatwe'know'aresigns;signsgaintheirmeaningfromtheirdistinctionfromothersigns.Thereforethereisnoknowledgeof'reality',butonlyofsymbolized,constructedexperience.Our'knowingofourexperience'isitselfthenmediatedknowing,whichistheonlythingknowingcanbe.Thereisno'pure'knowledgeofrealityexcept,astheearlytheoristofsemioticsCharlesSandersPiercesuggests,ataninstantaneousandinarticulablelevel:
onecan,Piercesays,experience,butnotknow,reality-in-itself.Thisisnottosaythatthisexperienceoftherealisnotreal;itis:
weliveinarealworld.Butweliveparticularlyinourcodification,oursystemofsigns.Ifwecannottranslateanyexperienceintosymbolicformthenwecannot'know'itinawaythatisusefultous;ifwedoknow,thenourknowledgeisonlyknowledgethroughourcodesandoursignifyingsystems-thatis,mediatedknowledge.(Aswhenwemightexperienceanearthquakewithoutimmediatelyknowingwhatitis,andsoforamomentexperienceonlysomethinglikedisorientedpanic).
Alltextsaremediated(areonlytheprocessofmediation),inmanyways:
theyaremediatedbylanguage,theyaremediatedbyculturalsystems,includingideologiesandsymbols,theyaremediatedbytheconventionsofgenres,theyaremediatedbytheworldofintertextualitywhichistextuality'sonlytruehome,theyaremediatedbythestructureofideasandpracticeswhichwecallreading(thereisno'purereading',thereisonlyreadingaccordingtosometradition,forsomepurpose).Textsaremediatedintheirconstruction,intheircommunication,andintheirreception.Textscannot,bydefinition,simplytransferanauthor'sideas.Ourmediatedknowledgeworksasallsignssystemswork,notbyidentificationbutbydifferencesandthroughcodes
DeconstructionAssumptions
Indeconstruction,thebasicstructuralistprincipleofdifferenceislocatedontologicallyaswellassemiotically:
attheverypointofbeingnessofeverythingthereisdifference-or"différance"-becauseonlythroughdifféranceisonethingnotanotherthinginstead.Différancecomesbeforebeing.Similarly,atracecomesbeforethepresenceofathing(becauseanythingwhichisisitselfbyvirtueofnotbeingsomethingelse:
bydiffering;andthatwhichitdiffersfromremainsasatrace,thatwhoseabsenceisnecessaryforittobe).Sotoowritingprecedesspeech-asystemofdifferencesprecedesanylocationofmeaninginarticulation.
Deconstruction,asdootherpost-structuraltheories,declinesthestructuralistassumptionthatstructuralprinciplesareessences-thatthereareuniversalstructuralprinciplesoflanguagewhichexist'before'theincidenceoflanguage.(Theemphasisontheconcrete,historicalandcontingentinoppositiontotheeternalitiesofessencerevealsoneofdeconstruction'sfiliationswithexistentialism.)All'principles'ofexistence(i.e.,ofexperience)arehistoricallysituatedandarestructuredbytheinterplayofindividualexperienceandinstitutionalforce,throughthelanguage,symbols,environment,exclusionsandoppositionsofthemoment(andofthepreviousmomentsthroughwhichthisoneisconstructed).Structuresarehistorical,temporary,contingent,operatingthroughdifferentiationanddisplacement.
Thereisnooutsideofthetext;everythingthatwecanknowistext,thatis,isconstructedofsignsinrelationship.Thisclaimdoesnotmeanthatthereisnothingoutsideoflanguage:
theclaimreferstotherealmofhumanknowledge,nottotherealmofconcreteexistence(elusiveasthatmightbe).Deconstructiondoesnotdenytheexistenceofanindependent,physicalworld.Alltextsareconstitutedbydifferencefromothertexts(thereforesimilaritytothem).Anytextincludesthatwhichitexcludes,andexistsinitsdifferencesfrom/filiationswithothertexts.Oppositesarealreadyunited;theycannotbeoppositesotherwise.Norcantheybeaunity,andbethemselves.Theyarethealternatingimprintofoneanother.Thereisnonihilismwithoutlogocentrism,nologocentrismwithoutnihilism,nopresencewithoutabsence,noabsencewithoutpresence,andsoforth.Inherentinlanguageitselfisdifferenceanddeferral;itisimpossibleforlanguagetobeidenticalwithitsreferents.Awordoranyothersigncanonlymobilizetheplayofthefieldsofsignsfromwhichitisdistinguished,andfromwhichitisofnecessityremoved.Inherentinlanguagealsoisthecontestbetweengrammarandrhetoric.Grammaristhesyntagmaticprotocol,meaningascreatedbyplacement;rhetoricistheintertextualsystemofsignswhichmakeswhatthegrammarmeans,meansomethingelse(ironyandmetaphorareprincipalexamples).Grammaticalandrhetoricalmeaningcannotbeidentical,andonemaywellnotbeabletoassignapriorityof'meaning'.
Inasense,deconstructionisprofoundlyhistorical:
itseestemporalityasintrinsictomeaning,inthatmeaningcanonlybestructuredagainstthatwhichisbeforeit,whichisstructuredagainstthatwhichisbeforethat.Meaningisthatwhichdiffers,andwhichdefers.Theclaimisnotthatthereisnomeaning--thatisamisunderstandingofdeconstruction:
theclaimisthatwhatwetaketobemeaningisashiftingfieldofrelationsinwhichthereisnostablepoint,inwhichdynamicopposingmeaningsmaybepresentsimultaneously,inwhichthemeaningistextuallymodulatedinainterweavingplayoftexts.Meaningcirculates,itisalwaysmeaningbydifference,bybeingother.Themeaning-through-differencecreates/drawson'traces'or'filiations',themselvesinsomesenseshistorical.Deconstructionisalsohistoricalinsofaranditfunctionsetymologically,turningtotheroot,oftenmetaphorical,meaningsofwordsforanunderstandingofhowtheyfunctionwithinthewebofdifferentiationwhichspansthechasmofthenon-humanoverwhichweconstantlylive.
Asdeconstructionworkson(inbothsensesof'workson')thewebofdifferentiationwhichspansthechasmofthenon-humanoverwhichweconstantlylive,itisintrinsicallyanddeeplyhumanandhumane.Itisaffirmativeofthemultiplicity,theparadoxes,therichnessandvibrancy,ofourlifeassignifyingbeings.Ifitseemstodenyaffirmation,itisbecauseitknowsthataffirmationisalways,intimatelyandcompellingly,itself,onlyinthepresenceofandbyvirtueofnegation.Tofullylivewemustembraceourdeaths.
IfdeconstructionseemstoopposeHumanism,itisbecauseHumanismoperatesbysubstitutingtheconcept'man'fortheconcept'God'(or'order','nature','Truth','logos',etc.)andsoplacing'man'astheunproblematicgroundofmeaningfulnessforhumanlife.Itshouldbeclear,however,that'man'isthena
hypothesizedcentre,substitutingforanotherhypothesizedcentre,inthehistoryofmetaphysics.Deconstructionwantstoclarifytheinstabilityuponwhichsuchaconceptisgrounded.
Onecanandindeedmustworkwithideassuchas'centre','man','truth',butmustworkwiththemknowingtheirinstability;todosois,indeconstructiveterms,toplacethem"undererasure."Tosignifythisgraphically,usethestrikethroughoptiononyourcomputer'swordprocessor.
Deconstructivereadingcanbeappliedtoanytext.ItisaTheoryofreading,notaTheoryofliterature.Derridagenerallydeconstructsphilosophicalwriting,showingthemetaphysicalcontradictionsandthehistoricityofwritingwhichlaysclaimtotheabsolute.
'Literature'isaformofwritingclearlyopentodeconstructivereading,asitreliessoheavilyonthemultiplemeaningsofwords:
onexclusions,onsubstitutions,onintertextuality,onfiliationsamongmeaningsandsigns,ont
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