英语论文Adapting Classroombased Strategy Instruction to a Distance Learning Context.docx
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英语论文Adapting Classroombased Strategy Instruction to a Distance Learning Context.docx
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英语论文AdaptingClassroombasedStrategyInstructiontoaDistanceLearningContext
AdaptingClassroom-basedStrategyInstructiontoaDistanceLearningContext
Abstract
Theroleoflanguagelearningstrategyinstruction(SI)inpromotinglearnerautonomyiswidelyrecognised(Wenden,1991;Little,1994;Cohen,1998)andaconsensusisemergingoverhowbesttoimplementit.However,apartfromstudiesbyWhite(1995,1999)andHurdetal.(2001),themajorityofresearchislocatedwithinaclassroomlearningsituation.ThispaperexploresdilemmasposedinthedesignofSIforadultslearningarangeoflanguagesinadistancelearningcontext.RecentapproachestoSIarereviewedandattemptstoresolvetheissuesdescribed.Itappearsthattheabsenceoflanguage-specifictasksinwhichtocontextualisetheSIislessproblematicthantheabsenceofteachermediationtoscaffoldLearnerSelfManagement.[-1-]
Introduction
Anincreasinglyderegulatedglobaleconomywithitsneedforaflexiblelabourmarkethasledtogreateremphasison"facilitatingaccesstolifelonglearning"(CounciloftheEuropeanUnion,2001,p.11).ThisfactorcombinedwiththeforthcomingexpansionoftheEuropeanUniontoincludetennewnationsislikelytomeanagrowthindemandforlanguagelearningopportunitiesamongstadultsnolongerinfull-timeeducation.Becauseadultlearnersmayhavetofittheirlanguagelearningintoexistingworkcommitments,distancelearningmaybeanattractiveoption.TheINSTALproject(IndividualisingStrategiesforAdultLearnersinLanguageandICT-Learning)wasestablishedin2000,undertheEuropeanCommission'sGrundvigProgrammeforAdultEducation.ItbringstogethertwentythreeresearchersandteachersfromacrosstheEUinaseriesofregularmeetingsinvariousEUlocations(afulllistofparticipantsisprovidedattheendofthepaper).Theaimistoexplorehowtosupportadultlearnersatdiverselevelsofcompetence,tacklingarangeofdifferentlanguages,andwhoseaccesstocomputertechnologyandthemostrecenttextbooksmightbelimited.Itsetsouttocomplementanyresourcesthelearnershavetohandbydesigningahandbookthatenablesthemtoexploitthoseresourcesmoreeffectively.ACDROMisalsobeingdevelopedalongsidethehandbook.ConsiderationsastowhatismostappropriatelydeliveredthroughthehandbookandwhatthroughaCDROMwillbethesubjectofanotherpaper.
Ofalltheself-instructedmodesoflearning,distancelearningrequiresthegreatestdegreeofautonomy.AsHurdetal.(2001,p.344)pointout:
"Inordertosuccessfullycompleteadistancelearningprogramme,learnershavetomaintaintheirmotivationwhileworkingaloneanddevelopaseriesofstrategiesthatwillenablethemtoworkindividually."
Thestrategiesreferredtohavebeenthesubjectofconsiderableinvestigationoverthelasttwodecades.Stemmingfromtheresearchintothe"GoodLanguageLearner"(Stern,1975;Naiman,Fröhlich,etal.,1978),theyhavebeendescribedasthe"specificactionstakenbythelearnertomakelearningeasier,faster,moreenjoyable,moreself-directed"(Oxford,1990,p.8).However,White(1995)warnsagainstassumingthatthedistancelearningcontextpersewillgiverisetoautonomy.Thereasonsunderlyingthelearners'choiceofmodeofstudy(workcommitments,geographicallocation)donotnecessarilypredisposethemtotakingchargeoftheirownlearning.Recentstudies(summarisedinMcDonough,1999)indicatethevalueofteachinglearnersthestrategiestheyneed.AnumberofSImaterialshavebeendevelopedforclassroomuseandsometextbooksnowintegrateSIintotheircourses(seeCohen,1998).ThechallengefacingtheINSTALprojecthasbeentoadaptexistingmodelsofSItothecontextofadultsinadistancelearningcontextandwithaccesstoverydifferenttypesofsupport.Theseconstraintsposethreecentraldilemmas.[-2-]
First,thematerialshavetobe"freestanding,"sincetheaimoftheprojectistoenablelearnersofanylanguagetoexploitwhateverresourcestheyhaveavailable.WhilstrecognisingthatEnglishmaybethelanguagethatthemajorityoflearnersarestudying,itisimportanttoacknowledgetheneedsofotherlearnerswhomay,forarangeofpolitical,socialorvocationalreasons,belearninglanguagesotherthanEnglish.YetthereisincreasingevidencetosuggestthatSIismoreeffectiveifitiscontextualised,sothatlearners:
"developtheirlearningstrategyrepertoirewhilelearningthetargetlanguageatthesametime"(Cohen,1998,p.80).Hurdetal.(2001)describethedilemmaofdevelopinganautonomousapproachtolanguagelearningwithinanOpenUniversitycourseinwhichtheamount,rateandcontentoftheprogrammeisdeterminedbythecoursewriter.Theywereabletoturnthispotentialproblemintoanadvantagebypresentingspecificstrategiesatspecifictimestoaddresstheparticulardifficultiesataskmightraise,sothattheSIdidnotoccurinavacuum.TheconstraintsontheINSTALprojectarediametricallyopposite.Theadvantageisthatthereisnopredeterminedcourseformatorcontent.ThedifficultyisthattherearenoconcretelanguagetasksinwhichtoembedtheSI.
Second,itcannotbeassumedthatthedistancelearnershaveanysupportfromateacher.Somemaybeattendingeveningcoursesbutforothersfinancialorfamilycommitmentsmaymakeitimpossible.Yet,asCohen(1998)indicates,teachershaveanumberofkeyrolestoplayinSI.Theywouldnormally,forexample,tailortheselectionofstrategiestobetaughtaccordingtothelearner'sneeds.TheINSTALmaterials,however,havetobedirectedtowardslearnersatdifferentlevelsofcompetence.
Thepresenceofateacherisalsodesirablesince,asEllisandSinclair(1989,p.8)pointout:
Manyadultsreturningtotheclassroomtolearnaforeignlanguagehavecomefromapastlearningexperiencewhichconcentratedonstudyinggrammarandstructuresandprovidedfewopportunitiestousethelanguageasameansofcommunication.Consequentlytheselearnersmayfinditdifficulttocometotermswithmorelearner-centredandcommunicativeapproaches.
Recentstudiesoflearningstrategiesemphasisetheimportanceofenablinglearnerstounderstandandthenmanagenotonlytheirrepertoireofstrategiesbutalsotheirlearningpatterns,attitudesandfeelings(Wenden,1995;Butler,1997;Rubin,2001).FindingalternativewaysofprovidingthenecessarymediationhasbeenafurtherconsiderationfortheINSTALproject.[-3-]
Finallytheadultdistancelearnersmayormaynothaveopportunitiestocollaboratewithotherlearnersnotonlytopractisethelanguagebutalsoto"share"eachother'sstrategies.Developingtaskstoprovidesuchopportunities"atadistance"hasbeenproblematic.
ThispaperreviewsclassroommodelsofSI,highlightingtheparticulardifficultiesofadaptingthemtothedistancelearningcontextinrelationto:
1.theselectionandpresentationofstrategiesforlearnersatalllevelsofcompetence;
2.thecontextualisationofSI,withouttheuseoflanguagespecificresources;
3.theintegrationofstrategiesdesignedtoenhanceLearnerSelfManagement(LSM);and
4.theprovisionofpeersupported"practice"activities.
ItgoesontopresenttheINSTALproject'sattemptstoresolvethedilemmasposed.Theaimisnottooffersolutions.Indeedmanyoftheissuesraisedhavebeenasourceoflivelydebate.Ratheritseekstooffertentativesuggestionsandtoindicateareasforfurtherinvestigation.
Thepaperbeginsbyconsideringtheroleofstrategiesindevelopinglearnerautonomywithaviewtoidentifyingthosethatareparticularlyimportantinthedistancelearningcontext.
Autonomy,LearningStrategiesandLearnerSelfManagement
Thelasttwentyyearshaveseengrowinginterestinthenotionoflearnerautonomy.TheideasandbeliefsunderpinningthisdevelopmentaswellasthehistoricaleventsshapingithavebeensummarisedbyGremmoandRiley(1995).Alongsidethesedevelopments,therehasbeenincreasingawarenessthat"itisessentialtothedevelopmentofautonomythatlearnersbecomeawareofthemselvesaslearners--aware,forexample,ofthelearningtechniquestheyinstinctivelyfavourandcapableofjudginghoweffectivethosetechniquesare"(Little,1994,p.86).
Studiesofthe"techniques"orstrategiesusedbyproficientlanguagelearners(reviewedinSkehan,1989)suggestthattheyhaveawiderrangeofstrategiesandemploythemmorefrequentlythantheirlesssuccessfulpeers.Theyhavealsorevealedthekeyroleplayedbymetacognitivestrategies(O'Malley&Chamot,1990).Incategorisingstrategies,acommondistinctionismadebetweendirectprocessingofthelanguage--cognition--andthinkingabouttheseprocesses--metacognition.Intermsoflearningstrategies,cognitioncanincludeawiderangeoflanguageprocessesfromtechniquesformemorisingvocabularytothoseusedtoinfermeaningfromtexts.Metacognition,ontheotherhand,isconcernedwithguidingthelearningprocessitselfandsoincludesstrategiesforplanning,monitoringandevaluatingbothlanguageuseandlanguagelearning;keyelementsindevelopingautonomy.[-4-]
OfparticularrelevancefortheINSTALprojectisWhite's(1995)investigationcomparingthestrategiesusedbydistancelearnerstothoseofclassroomlanguagelearners.Thisshowsawiderandincreaseduseofmetacognitivestrategiesbydistancelearners,particularlyselfmanagement,monitoringandevaluation.Sheconcludesthattheseareactivatedbytheneedtocompensatefortheabsenceofateacher,whonormallyselectsmaterialsattheappropriatelevel,guidesthepaceofworkandprovideslearnerswithimmediatefeedbackontheirprogress.Rubin(2001)alsonotesthecriticalrolethat
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